Zambia is a highly urbanized country with 60% of its urban population residing in low cost areas also called peri-urban, slum or informal settlements. The increase in urban population attributed to rapid migration and urbanization due to political and economic changes has taken a toll on service provision as the infrastructure development and service provision has failed to meet the demand. For the 33 peri-urban areas in Lusaka, the water supply and sanitation has been poor, inadequate and unreliable with the coverage being slightly above 50% for water while 90% of the urban population does not have access to the much needed sanitation. The low coverage is a result of lack the financial capacity on the part of the service providers to extend services to un served areas. This research focuses on the strategies to provide sustainable water and sanitation services to peri-urban areas to ensure improved accessibility through the expansion of infrastructure and attainment of full cost recovery. In this era of increasing migration to unplanned settlements where the services are inadequate, alternatives to public provision of water and sanitation services need to be put in place. One of the alternatives is the public-private partnership which encompasses the society, private and the civil society. As has been found in the study the best alternative should not only be completely bottom up but should also be more demand driven and be able to provide for reater contributions from the affected communities. The hypothesis of the study is to ascertain if provision of water supply to the Peri-Urban Areas (PUAs) can be achieved through the partnership between the water utility and the small scale water providers. Therefore, the objectives of the research are to: evaluate and compare the current service provision to the peri-urban areas by the utility and small scale providers in terms of technical, social and institutional arrangements and determine the best way of ensuring sustained service provision to peri urban areas and show how partnership can be the best solution to improving service delivery to these areas. Service provision in PUAs can not be achieved without the involvement of all the stakeholders especially the community who are also the users and whose major role is paying for the service to enhance sustainability. In this study the Small Scale Water Providers (SSWP) users were found to be satisfied with the service provided than the utility users who felt that more needed to be done. The two providers are found to have different strengths which when combined would enhance service provision. The collaboration between utility with its competence in water supply, technical installations, water quality testing and SSWP with theirs in community involvement, cost recovery, effective operation and maintenance and demand driven water schemes have to be merged to achieve the intended goal and it is also an indication that the two can complement each other. Utility should therefore consider opening investment accounts for all the areas so as to detach PUAs needs from the general plan and eventually budget as they would be self sustaining and enhance  illingness to pay for the users. The SSWP should therefore be viewed as partners by all and licensing should be considered by the government for the benefit of the urban poor.

Climate adaptation is an important and necessary response to global climate change.Numerous studies show that adaptive capacity is shaped by cultural and social determinants.Gender relations are an integral aspect of social relations in all societies, yet the literature onhow gender influences climate adaptation is limited. Women and men, with different roles,responsibilities and decision-making power have different possibilities to cope and adapt withclimate change, thus adopting a gendered approach to climate adaptation is essential toenhance our understanding of successful adaptation.The aim of the study is to explore how cultural attributes and power relations of genderinfluence adaptive capacity in relation to climate change among smallholder farmers inwestern Kenya. Furthermore this study contributes to resilience thinking by using the lens ofpost-structural feminist political ecology and the concept of gender contracts, whichhighlights the influence of power laden gender discourses and the construction andreconstruction of such contracts. The study is triangulated by the use of qualitative methodsand draws upon 12 semi-structured interviews, 4 focus group discussions and 4 expertinterviews.Gendered power relations were primarily a constraint to the adaptive capacity of women,restricting their possibilities to pursue a number of coping and adaptation strategies, which inturn affected the resilience of the household. Capacity building and farmer group formationpromoted by a Swedish NGO (ViAFP) resulted in altered power relations, renegotiated andreconstructed gender contracts which increased adaptive capacity and adaptation opportunitiesfor both men and women, although particularly for women because of their initial vulnerableposition. This study adds an understanding of the gendered dimensions of local climatechange adaptation and shows that adaptation cannot be understood separate from socialrelations. The policy implication is thus that enhancing local climate adaptation requiresconsideration of power relations and gender equality.

The mechanical properties of crystalline metals are strongly affected when the sample size is limited to the micron or sub-micron scale. At these scales, the mechanical properties are enhanced far beyond classical predictions. Besides, the surface to volume ratio significantly increases. Therefore surfaces and interfaces play a big role in the mechanical properties of these micro-samples. The effect of different interfaces on the mechanical properties of micro-samples is not yet well understood. The aim of this project is to characterize, understand, and predict the effect of confinement on deformation mechanisms at micro-scale. In this study, micro-pillars were fabricated by Focused Ion Beam (FIB). Micro-pillars were homogeneously coated with thin films by magnetron sputtering and cathodic arc deposition. The mechanical properties of carbon-coated-, chromium coated-, naked-, annealed- and non-annealed micro-pillars were measured. Afterwards, the results of micro-compression tests and Automated Crystal Orientation Mapping on Transmission electron microscopy (ACOM TEM) were compared and led to some surprising new findings.Dislocations are blocked by amorphous- and even crystalline coating in the deformed samples. Parallel slip systems were detected in the chromium layer and the copper micro-pillar. Even though the chromium layer has parallel slip systems, dislocation pile-up at the interface was found after deformation. The most significant finding in this study concerns the back stress of the dislocation pile-up, which affects the dislocation sources and causes an increase of the flow stress to generate new dislocations from these sources. Thermal annealing increases the strength and flow stress of FIB fabricated micro samples. The annealing treatment restores the lattice that was damaged by the FIB fabrication process. A higher stress is required to initiate the dislocation nucleation in a pristine lattice. Techniques of fabrication and investigation were developed to study the role of confinement and interfaces on the mechanical properties of materials at micro scale. Mechanisms of deformation were unraveled and a better understanding of the key parameters was reached. / Doctorat en Sciences de l'ingénieur et technologie / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

The small scale fuel ethanol production faces serious problems of inefficiency inherent to the process. The yield increase in distillation step presents a promising way to guarantee technical and economical feasibility to microdistilleries. As the general objective, it is proposed a different still, a hybrid miscellaneous of plates and packing, in stripping and rectifying sections respectively, and as a specific objective, to explore the best technical features of each tower internals. The studied prototype consists of one glass constructed continuous operation bench still, divided in 3 modules of 190cm effective height and a 4cm internal diameter; two modules filled with Raschig rings and one module as vigreux type. Tests were performed under total reflux, and later in continuous operation. In total reflux, the number of transfer units and the height of transfer unit were determined, referred to liquid and gas phases. The obtained values were approximately and respectively: 11,6 and 10,3; and 0,1847cm and 0,1632cm. The theoretical stages number was determined using four different methods that allowed evaluate the height equivalent to a theoretical plate. Standing out is the method proposed by Katayama, whose values were closer to the number and height transfer unit, 9,18 and 0,1733m respectively. Subsequently, seven experiments were performed (A, B, C, D, E, F and G) in continuous operation, differ only on their variable rate of vaporization, in order to assess their influence in the still operating performance (minimal distillated ethanol concentration - 83,04% mol, and maximum bottom ethanol concentration 0,196% mol, operational capacity and energetic factor). Therefore experiment C showed the lowest reflux ratio (2,293)and the highest energy factor (1,342), besides complying the concentration limits for the distillate (83,14% mol) and bottom product (0,16% mol). By comparing the experiments of higher (A 84,24% mol) and lower (E 82,82% mol) distillate concentration was concluded that, in order to obtain a small gain in distillate concentration (1,71%), it was necessary an increase of 226,07% in the A reflux ratio compared to E experiment, resulting in an increase of 51,38% in specific energy consumption. Thereby the A energetic factor experiment was approximately 50% smaller. It can be stated that these results prove the technical feasibility of proposed miscellaneous still, with wide application in microdistillaries. / A produção de álcool combustível em pequena escala, até 25L.h-1, enfrenta sérios problemas relativos à ineficiência inerentes a seus processos. O aumento de rendimento na etapa de destilação apresenta-se como uma maneira promissora de viabilizar técnica e economicamente as microdestilarias. Sendo esse o objetivo geral, propõe-se um destilador diferenciado, um misto composto de pratos e recheios, respectivamente nas seções de esgotamento e retificação, e como objetivo especifico, aproveitar as melhores características de cada um desses internos de torre. O protótipo estudado consiste de um destilador de bancada, construído em vidro, em regime de operação contínuo e dividido em três módulos, com altura efetiva total de 190 cm e diâmetro interno de 4cm; dois módulos preenchidos com anéis de Raschig e um módulo do tipo vigreux. Foram realizados testes em refluxo total e, posteriormente, em regime contínuo. Em refluxo total determinou-se o número de unidades de transferência e a altura da unidade de transferência, referidas às fases líquida e gasosa. Os valores obtidos foram aproximada e respectivamente: 11,6 e 10,3; e 0,1847 cm e 0,1632 cm. O número de estágios teóricos foi determinado utilizando-se quatro diferentes métodos, que permitiram avaliar a altura equivalente ao prato teórico. Destaca-se o método proposto por Katayama, cujos valores obtidos se aproximaram mais do número e altura das unidades de transferência, 9,18 e 0,1733m, respectivamente. Posteriormente foram executados sete experimentos (A, B, C, D, E, F e G), em regime contínuo, diferenciados entre si pela variação na taxa de evaporação, de maneira a permitir avaliar sua influência no desempenho operacional do destilador (concentração de etanol no destilado (mínimo igual a 83,04% mol) e no produto de fundo (máximo igual a 0,196% mol), capacidade operacional e fator energético). Assim, o experimento C apresentou a menor razão de refluxo (2,293) e o maior fator energético (1,342), além de respeitar os limites de concentração para o destilado (83,14% mol) e para o produto de fundo (0,16% mol). Através da comparação entre os experimentos de maior (A 84,24% mol) e menor (E 82,82% mol) concentração do destilado foi possível verificar que, a fim de obter-se um pequeno ganho na concentração do destilado (1,71%), foi necessário um aumento de 226,07% na razão de refluxo de A em relação a E, resultando em um aumento no consumo específico de energia de 51,38%. Assim, o fator energético foi aproximadamente 50% menor para o experimento A. Pode-se afirmar que esses resultados comprovam a viabilidade técnica da proposta desse sistema misto de destilação, com grande aplicabilidade nas microdestilarias.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / The environmental liabilities that are faced by fossil fuel industry motivate the search for renewable energy sources. Although Brazil is the second largest world producer of bioethanol, the current production deficit is expected to go up by 2015. In this direction, it is utmost important to widen the ethanol feedstock cultivated area, as well as expanding the number of production units of this biofuel. Small ethanol plants emerge as an interesting alternative for the decentralization of production. However, the design and operation of such plants require high efficiency to enable their operation. This work presents the study of modeling, simulation and control of a batch distillation column for the separation of binary mixture ethanol-water to produce hydrous ethanol fuel with a concentration between 95.1% (v/v) and 96% (v/v), according to ANP specifications. The distillation column, located at the Polytechnic College of the Federal University of Santa Maria, was used as basis for the fundamental modeling which was performed using the software EMSO. Different models of phase equilibria were analyzed, being the Van Laar model for calculating the activity coefficient of the mixture in the liquid phase, coupled with ideal vapor mixture model, the one that have shown the best results. In this study, different control strategies were also proposed and evaluated to keep the top product concentration on the ANP specification for hydrous ethanol fuel. The chosen control algorithm was the Proportional Integral designed with discrete linear parametric models and through different tuning methods found in the literature. Robustness and performance criteria were used to select the best controller. Three process variables, candidates to be the manipulated variable of the control strategy, were compared: heating steam flow rate of reboiler, cooling water flow rate of pre-condenser and reflux ratio. The results have shown that the most efficient strategy was the one in which the flow of cooling water flow rate of pre-condenser was used as the manipulated variable. Besides ensuring that concentration is kept quite close to the azeotrope formed by ethanol-water mixture, another advantage of this variable in a control strategy is to allow the production of a high hydrous ethanol fuel. / O passivo ambiental enfrentado pela indústria de combustíveis fósseis motiva a busca por fontes renováveis de energia. Embora o Brasil seja o segundo maior produtor de etanol mundial, há um déficit produtivo cuja tendência é aumentar até 2015. Nesse sentido, é muito importante ampliar as áreas de cultivo de matérias prima do etanol, bem como aumentar o número de unidades de produção deste biocombustível. Miniusinas de etanol surgem como uma alternativa interessante para a descentralização da produção, porém sua concepção e operação necessitam de grande eficiência para viabilizar o funcionamento. Este trabalho apresenta o estudo da modelagem, simulação e controle de uma coluna de destilação descontínua para a separação da mistura binária etanol-água com o objetivo de produzir etanol hidratado combustível, com concentração entre 95,1% (v/v) e 96% (v/v), conforme especificações da ANP. A coluna de destilação, localizada no Colégio Politécnico da Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, serviu de base para a modelagem fundamental, a qual foi efetuada com o uso do software EMSO. Foram analisados diferentes modelos de equilíbrio de fases, dentre os quais o modelo de Van Laar para o cálculo do coeficiente de atividade da mistura em fase líquida, aliado ao modelo de mistura vapor ideal, foi o que apresentou os melhores resultados. Neste estudo, também foram avaliadas diferentes estratégias de controle para manter a concentração do produto de topo dentro da especificação do etanol hidratado combustível exigida pela ANP. O algoritmo de controle escolhido foi o Proporcional Integral projetado com modelos paramétricos discretos lineares e através de diferentes métodos de sintonia existentes na literatura. Critérios de robustez e desempenho foram usados para a escolha do melhor controlador. Três variáveis de processo candidatas à variável manipulada na estratégia de controle foram comparadas: vazão de vapor de aquecimento no destilador, da vazão de água de resfriamento no pré-condensador e razão de refluxo. Os resultados mostraram que a estratégia mais eficiente foi aquela em que a vazão de água de resfriamento no pré-condensador foi usada como variável manipulada. Além de garantir que concentração seja mantida muito próxima a do azeótropo formado pela mistura etanol-água, a manipulação desta variável permite que uma maior quantidade de etanol hidratado combustível seja produzida.

The upper Tanglewood Member is the final member of the Lexington Limestone and is well-known for its soft-sediment deformation. This study has confirmed the carbonate-shoal-complex origin of the unit, and detailed study shows that its development took place during five small-scale, sequence-like, fining-upward cycles related to eustasy and tectonics. Four lithofacies are represented in the unit. Facies analysis of each cycle shows that the thickest and coarsest part of each cycle corresponds to previously uplifted basement-fault blocks; the occurrence of thick, coarse facies on the same fault blocks suggests that the blocks continued to experience uplift due to Taconian far-field forces generated on the eastern margin of Laurentia. The upper Tanglewood Member includes six deformed horizons that can be traced into equivalent parts of the Clays Ferry and Point Pleasant formations. Concurrence of four lines of evidence, suggested by Ettensohn et al. (2002d) for interpretation of seismites, indicates that the widespread horizons of deformation are seismogenic in origin. Reactivation of basement structures due to Taconian far-field forces probably induced seismicity on the intra-platform carbonate complex so as to produce soft-sediment deformation. Petrographic investigation indicates that most of the cements in the upper Tanglewood limestones appear to be late diagenetic, fresh-water phreatic cements. Comparing the petrography of deformed and undeformed portions of the same horizon showed no significant differences in terms of cementation, indicating that cementation occurred primarily after deformation. The primary impact of deformation on the microstructure of the unit was the randomization of grain fabric and the increased presence of broken intraclasts.

Magister Economicae - MEcon / The main objective of this study was to identify ways in which transaction costs can be lowered to improve small-scale farmers’ participation in and returns from agricultural output markets, with specific reference to small-scale mango farmers in Limpopo province. This study hypothesizes that transaction costs are lower in informal spot markets and increase when small-scale farmers sell in more structured markets (formal markets). This study builds on transaction cost economics (TCE) to demonstrate how to overcome transaction cost barriers that small-scale mango farmers face in the agro-food markets. The approach to collect primary information was sequenced in two steps: first, key informant and focus group interviews were conducted and, secondly, a structured survey instrument was administered in two districts of Limpopo. A total of 235 smallscale mango farmers were interviewed. A binary logistic regression model was used to estimate the impact of transaction costs on the likelihood of households’ participation in formal (=1) and informal (=0) agro-food markets. STATA Version 10 was used to analyse the data. This study found that a larger proportion of male than female farming households reported participation in the formal markets, suggesting deep-seated gender differentiation in market participation. The average age of small farmers participating in formal markets is 52, compared to 44 for those in informal markets, implying that older farmers might have established stronger networks and acquired experience over a longer period. Farmers staying very far from the densely populated towns (more than 50 km) participate less in the formal markets than those staying closer (0 – 25 km and 26 – 49 km), which implies that the further they are from the towns, the less the likelihood of farmers selling in the formal markets. Farmers who own storage facilities and a bakkie (transportation means) participate more in formal markets compared to those who do not own these assets, which suggests that these farmers are able to store mangoes, retaining their freshness and subsequently delivering them to various agro-food markets on time. Households that participate in formal markets have high mean values of income and social grants. However, this study found that the likelihood of a household’s participation in the markets is less as income and social grants increase. This suggests that households do not invest their financial assets in order to overcome market access barriers. A large proportion of households that own larger pieces of arable land participate in the formal markets, which implies that they are able to produce marketable surplus. Households that have a high mean value (in Rand) of cattle participate more in formal markets than in informal markets. However, this study found that the likelihood of a household’s participation in the markets does not change with an increase in the value of its livestock. These findings suggest that households do not sell their cattle in order to overcome market access barriers. Reduced transaction costs for small-scale mango farmers in Limpopo should improve their participation in and returns from the agro-food markets. Policy interventions to support this need to focus on: access to storage and transportation facilities, enforcement of gender equity requirements in existing policies, and better access to information about markets. / South Africa

Magister Scientiae - MSc / As a means to reduce poverty particularly in rural areas, the South African government has placed great emphasis on the development of small-scale farmers into becoming commercial farmers. Central to this effort is the provision of agricultural extension support, as reflected in the 1995 White Paper on Agriculture (DOA, 1995), African National Congress (ANC) policy resolutions of 2007 (ANC, 2007) and a 2011 extension recovery plan (DAFF, 2011). Parallel to this policy process, a growing role of nongovernmental organisations (NGOs) in supporting small-scale farmers, and criticising the governmental approach is observed. Biowatch is one example of this kind of NGO that, aside from its direct support to farmers, advocates for an alternative approach that embraces ‘subsistence’ farming. The academic literature suggests that existing agricultural policies are too generic and therefore fail to accommodate the different types of small-scale farmers that are found in rural areas, resulting in poor policy impact. This thesis seeks to establish the ideological thinking underpinning two paradigms of small-scale farmer development in South Africa and explores what they look like in practice, while analysing how they produce and reproduce class differentiation, and the emergence of various livelihood trajectories. Through qualitative research conducted in one case study site (the village Emagengeni in Northern KwaZulu- Natal) the views of farmers (beneficiaries of extension support as well as non-receivers) have been elicited and so contribute to a clear picture of what is happening there. In addition, experiences and perceptions of government extension officers, provincial officials and a Biowatch official are taken into account. Theoretically, the study is framed using Cousins’ (2011) class analytical perspectives on smallscale farming in South Africa which distinguish between three types of ‘petty commodity producers’, i.e. (i) petty commodity producers that produce to meet most of their social reproduction needs, (ii) petty commodity producers producing to partially meet their social reproduction needs and (iii) petty commodity producers producing enough to sell and make profit and start to accumulate capital. In addition, the categories described by Dorward et al (2009) in the ‘stepping up’, ‘hanging in’ ‘stepping out’ and ‘dropping out’ theory, are used to analyse the broad types of strategies pursued by poor people. The sustainable livelihoods framework is used to classify the various types of farming households observed. The main argument is that since 1994 the nature of public agricultural support has not met the needs of the majority of farmers in the country, i.e. poorly resourced farmers mostly located in the former homelands. This is because it is trying to make them into something they are not, i.e. commercial farmers and is focused on on-farm productivity and does not address wider market conditions. Although Biowatch demonstrates a more effective response to farmers’ needs, it is limited in its approach to agrarian transformation. The conclusion is that government’s fixation on the commercialisation of small-scale farmers perpetuates the existing and already problematic dualism within the agricultural sector.

Magister Economicae - MEcon / Pre-democratic South Africa was highly regulated by the apartheid government with the black small-scale farming community actively marginalised. Following the deregulation of the South African agricultural market came the opening up of the market to accommodate these small-scale farmers and also the introduction of South African Futures Exchange. South Africa has done well in terms of development of ICT over the past years, making it a country with characteristics of both first and third world countries. This study aims to assess the agricultural commodity exchange market and how small-scale farmers may participate more actively in the market. This study finds that though South Africa has world class ICT infrastructure this has not made it easier for small-scale farmers to enter the agricultural market and value chain. The study finds that there is little or no participation by small-scale farmers in South African Futures Exchange. It finds that mobile phones and applications may be the way forward in the efforts to ensure their participation in the commodity exchange market through provision of services such as price discovery and price risk management as is the function of South African Futures Exchange. It is also found that there is need to invest in high value agricultural products in order to benefit more from commodity exchanges.

Genetically structured populations arise when gene flow between groups of individuals is hindered by geographical, behavioural or temporal barriers. The identification of such groups is important for understanding evolution and has large implications for conservation concern. The field of population subdivision has received a lot of interest throughout the years and gained empirical support from a number of species. However, very little is known about population structure at small spatial scales, especially in a highly mobile species such as fish. The main object for my thesis was to further investigate population differentiation, explicitly at small spatial scales in the Eurasian perch. My results show that in this species, genetic differentiation occurs, even at very small spatial scales, both within lakes and in the Baltic Sea. Additionally, the differentiation can be stable over years and thus have a large impact in the evolution of adaptation to different environments. I also found barriers to gene flow that overlapped with the largest change in spring temperature, suggesting a temporal difference in spawning. Morphological differences were found at these small scales as well which indicates that a difference in food resources might be an underlying cause of change. My thesis work shows that the aquatic environment might not be as homogenous as widely thought and that there could be barriers or adaptations to different environments that hinder the fish from genetic panmixia. Slight patterns of isolation by distance (IBD) were found in the Baltic Sea, implying that the distance (i.e. currents) effect the level of differentiation via drifting of larvae and/or small fish. However, I have also theoretically investigated the IBD model of and seen that it is no longer correct when differences in population sizes are introduced. The pattern of IBD can mean high levels of gene flow or no gene flow at all, solely dependent on population size differences and fluctuations. My thesis has resulted in new and important findings regarding the existence and cause of genetic differentiation at very small spatial scales and thus added new knowledge into the field of evolution and speciation. In addition, my results also give insights into the contemporary state of the Eurasian perch and future evolutionary potential.