An important part of repair processes activated by vascular injury is the recruitment of vascular smooth muscle cells (SMC) from the existing contractile coat. Phenotypic modulation of SMCs enables these cells to proliferate and migrate into the vessel intima. Despite its importance in vessel repair, this plasticity of SMCs can also promote both the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis as well as neointimal formation following revascularization- induced injury. Vascular growth factors are major contributors to the migratory and proliferative responses to injury. IGF-1 is one such growth factor that elicits a response via its receptor, the IGF-1R, a classical tyrosine kinase receptor. However, it has been suggested that the IGF-1R may also be coupled to a heterotrimeric G protein and can thus initiate cellular responses via this alternate pathway. The objective of this study was to investigate the structural aspects of IGR-1R coupling to a heterotrimeric G protein in SMCs, as well as the contribution of this pathway to the cellular responses. In a porcine primary SMC culture model, IGF-1R co-precipitated with both the α- and β-subunits of a G protein, with the latter demonstrating activation dependent precipitation. The specific Gα class activated by IGF-1R was Gαi, in a manner that was independent of the activity of the tyrosine kinase. Both Gαi1 and Gαi2 directly interacted with the receptor. Gβγ mediated the activation of MAPK and its inhibition was sufficient to attenuate both the proliferation and migration of SMCs in vitro. In contrast, the contribution of Gαi was related to regulation of protein translation and histone modification. The data supports the conclusion that IGF-1 regulates the phenotype of vascular SMCs at least partially via a non-classical G protein-coupled receptor. Investigation into the individual subunits of the G protein complex led to the elucidation of a model in which both components play an integral role in the IGF-1 response, independent of the receptor tyrosine kinase activity. In one case, an interplay of specific Gαi-subunits leads to modulation of the VSMC translational and transcriptional responses, while in the other, release of the Gβγ-subunit activated the MAPK response in a manner that significantly contributes to both the migration and proliferation of SMCs.

The interaction between CD40 ligand (CD154) expressed on activated T cells and its receptor, CD40, has been shown to play a role in the onset and maintenance of autoimmune inflammation. Recent studies suggest that CD154+T cells also contribute to the regulation of atherogenesis due to their capacity to activate CD40+cells of the vasculature, including vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC). The present study evaluated the signalling events initiated through CD40 ligation which culminate in VSMC chemokine production. CD40 ligation resulted in the phosphorylation/activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1 and 2 (ERK1/2), and p38, but not c-jun N-terminal kinase. Inhibition of both ERK1/2 and p38 activity abrogated CD40 stimulation of IL-8 and MCP-1 production. CD40-mediated induction of chemokines also showed dependence on the Src family kinase activity. The Src kinase inhibitor, PP2, was found to inhibit CD40-induced phosphorylation of ERK1/2 as well as activation of IκB kinase. An evaluation of Src kinases that may be important in CD40 signalling identified Lyn as a potential candidate. These data indicate that CD40 signalling in VSMC activates a Src family kinase-initiated pathway that results in the induction of MAPK activities required for successful induction of chemokine synthesis.

L-type Ca2+ channels, found in vascular smooth muscle cells, function to control Ca2+ influx, which directly regulates the degree of tension in the vasculature. An influx of Ca2+ causes these cells to contract while inhibition of this channel causes muscle relaxation, a major goal in treating hypertension. Acute hypoxia inhibits, and chronic hypoxia enhances, Ca2+ channel currents. The mechanisms underlying these hypoxic responses were examined in HEK 293 cells by altering cellular levels of proposed mediators of 0 2 sensing which have previously been shown to be involved in the redox model of 02 sensing in various cell types. In these studies I investigated the roles of mitochondrial complexes and NADPH oxidase function, and changes in cellular ROS levels, on the acute and chronically hypoxic regulation of recombinant L-type Ca2+ channels. An increase in H202, a form of ROS, by exogenous application was found to enhance Ca2+ currents. However neither catalase nor H202 affected the acute hypoxic response. In contrast superoxide dismutase (SOD) abolished hypoxic inhibition of recombinant L-type Ca2+ channels, suggestive of a role of 02- production in 02 sensing. Altered production of this ROS during hypoxia may occur within the mitochondria since acute 02 sensing was abolished in mitochondria-depleted p0 cells. Alterations in NADPH oxidase activity via application of NADPH oxidase inhibitors such as DPl and P AO did not mediate the acute hypoxic response. Hypoxic regulation of mitochondrial complex I may also mediate the response to chronic hypoxia since current enhancement by this stimulus was abolished by rotenone. These findings support the involvement of altered mitochondrial function in the 0 2 sensing pathway which mediates the hypoxic responses of recombinant L-type Ca2+ channel a1c subunits. / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc)

Impaired mass transfer characteristics of blood borne vasoactive species such as ATP in regions such as an arterial bifurcation have been hypothesized as a prospective mechanism in the aetiology of atherosclerotic lesions. Arterial endothelial (EC) and smooth muscle cells (SMC) respond differentially to altered local hemodynamics and produce coordinated macro-scale responses via intercellular communication. Using a computationally designed arterial segment comprising large populations of mathematically modelled coupled ECs & SMCs, we investigate their response to spatial gradients of blood borne agonist concentrations and the effect of micro-scale driven perturbation on the macro-scale. Altering homocellular (between same cell type) and heterocellular (between different cell types) intercellular coupling we simulated four cases of normal and pathological arterial segments experiencing an identical gradient in the concentration of the agonist. Results show that the heterocellular calcium (Ca2+) coupling between ECs and SMCs is important in eliciting a rapid response when the vessel segment is stimulated by the agonist gradient. In the absence of heterocellular coupling, homocellular Ca2+ coupling between smooth muscle cells is necessary for propagation of Ca2+ waves from downstream to upstream cells axially. Desynchronized intracellular Ca2+ oscillations in coupled smooth muscle cells are mandatory for this propagation. Upon decoupling the heterocellular membrane potential, the arterial segment looses the inhibitory effect of endothelial cells on the Ca2+ dynamics of underlying smooth muscle cells. The full system comprising hundreds of thousands of coupled nonlinear ordinary differential equations simulated on the massively parallel Blue Gene architecture. The use of massively parallel computational architectures shows the capability of this approach to address macro-scale phenomena driven by elementary micro-scale components of the system.

Numerous macroscale models of arteries have been developed, comprised of populations of discrete coupled Endothelial Cells (EC) and Smooth Muscle Cells (SMC) cells, an example of which is the model of Shaikh et al. (2012), which simulates the complex biochemical processes responsible for the observed propagating waves of Ca2+ observed in experiments. In a 'homogenised' model however, the length scale of each cell is assumed infinitely small while the population of cells are assumed infinitely large, so that the microscopic spatial dynamics of individual cells are unaccounted for. We wish to show in our study, our hypothesis that the homogenised modelling approach for a particular system can be used to replicate observations of the discrete modelling approach for the same system. We may do this by deriving a homogenised model based on Goldbeter et al. (1990), the simplest possible physiological system, and comparing its results with those of the discrete Shaikh et al. (2012), which have already been validated with experimental findings. We will then analyse the mathematical dynamics of our homogenised model to gain a better understanding of how its system parameters influence the behaviour of its solutions. All our homogenised models are essentially formulated as partial differential equations (PDE), specifically they are of type reaction diffusion PDEs. Therefore before we begin developing the homogenised Goldbeter et al. (1990), we will first analyse the Brusselator PDE with the goal that it will help us to understand reaction diffusion systems better. The Brusselator is a suitable preliminary study as it shares two common properties with reaction diffusion equations: oscillatory solutions and a diffusion term.

Collagens are abundant components of the extracellular matrix in the atherosclerotic plaque. In addition to contributing to lesion volume and mechanical stability, collagens can influence the behavior of macrophages and smooth muscle cells (SMCs) and have profound effects on both inflammation and fibrosis during lesion development. The aim of this thesis was to define a functional role for the discoidin domain receptor 1 (DDR1), a collagen receptor tyrosine kinase, in murine models of atherogenesis. In our first study, using Ddr1+/+;Ldlr-/- and Ddr1-/-;Ldlr-/- mice fed a high fat diet, we identified DDR1 as a novel positive regulator of atherogenesis. Targeted deletion of DDR1 attenuated atherosclerotic plaque development by limiting inflammation and accelerating matrix accumulation and resulted in the formation of macrophage poor, matrix rich lesions. In the second study, we used bone marrow transplantation to generate chimeric mice with a deficiency of DDR1 in bone marrow derived cells and reveal a central role for macrophage DDR1 in atherogenesis. Deficiency of DDR1 in bone marrow derived cells reduced lesion size by limiting macrophage accumulation in the developing plaque. Moreover using BrdU pulse labeling, we demonstrated reduced monocyte recruitment into the early fatty streak lesions of Ddr1-/-;Ldlr-/- mice. In our third study, we again utilized bone marrow transplantation to generate mice with deficiency of DDR1 in the host derived tissues such as the vessel wall and uncovered a distinct role for DDR1 expressed on resident vessel wall smooth muscle cells in the regulation of matrix accumulation and fibrous cap formation during atherogenesis. Deficiency of DDR1 in vessel wall cells resulted in robust accumulation of collagen and elastin and resulted in the formation of larger atherosclerotic plaques, with thick fibrous caps. Taken together, these studies support a critical role for DDR1 in the development of the atherosclerotic plaque. We demonstrate that DDR1 exerts distinct and opposing effects on lesion size by regulating both monocyte recruitment and matrix accumulation. These studies underscore the importance of collagen signaling during atherogenesis, and identify DDR1 as a key transducer; providing signals that regulate both inflammation and fibrosis during atherogenesis.

The pulmonary vein (PV) constricts to hypoxia however little is known about the underlying mechanisms. Hypoxic PV constriction is proposed to recruit upstream capillary beds and optimise gas exchange in healthy humans and may play a role in high altitude pulmonary oedema. The PV is also intrinsic to disease states including pulmonary hypertension and pulmonary veno-occlusive disease. Blood vessel culture can be a powerful tool to enable assessment of the impact of environmental factors on vessel function and as a disease model. However culture conditions alone affect vessel contractility; the effect of culture conditions on PV function remained to be established. The aim of this project was to investigate hypoxic responses of porcine PVs including the impact of maintenance in culture. Maintenance of PVs in culture conditions for 24 hours increased contraction to hypoxia and inhibited hypoxic relaxation post-contraction. These changes to PV hypoxic responses were thought to result from endothelial dysfunction. However, the endothelial nitric oxide synthase inhibitor L-NAME inhibited PV hypoxic contraction and enhanced relaxation. The impact of K+ channel inhibitors on hypoxic contraction was also investigated. Penitrem A, 4AP, DPO-1, ZnCl2 and glyburide had no significant effect however TEA and BDM inhibited the hypoxic contraction. This suggested that TASK, KV1.5, BKCa and KATP do not play a role in the mechanism of hypoxic pulmonary venoconstriction however KV channels containing KV2.1 α subunits may modulate the response. Results with L-NAME suggested endothelial dysfunction may not fully account for the change in PV function after exposure to culture. Therefore the impact of PV maintenance in culture was further explored using an isolated PV smooth muscle cell (PVSMC) model. Maintenance of PVs in culture conditions had minimal impact on morphology and electrical properties of PVSMCs. Notably, resting membrane potential and hypoxia-induced depolarisation were not significantly different. Based on the findings of this study, the endothelium in PVs appears to a) play a major role in modulation of the hypoxic response b) be sensitive to short-term exposure to culture conditions. K+ channels appear to play a minor role in PV hypoxic contraction and SMCs isolated from PVs maintained in culture conditions have similar morphological and electrophysiological characteristics to freshly isolated PVSMCs. Taking all this into account, endothelial regulation of contractility should be a key focus for future PV research.

Os efeitos da obstrução uretral parcial na musculatura da bexiga urinária de coelhos foram investigadas usando as ferramentas estereológicas. Foram utilizadas 12 fêmeas de coelhos da raça Norfolk, com três meses de idade e peso corporal variando de 2,5-3,0 kg. O procedimento cirúrgico consistiu de celiotomia mediana retro-umbilical para exposição da bexiga urinária. A parede dorsal da uretra foi divulsionada de sua íntima associação com o útero e vagina, o suficiente para a passagem de fio nylon 2-0. Um pino de Steinmann (3 mm de diâmetro) foi interposto temporariamente entre a uretra e o fio para determinar indiretamente o grau de obstrução uretral. Após três, sete e doze semanas os animais foram ortotanasiados e comparados com o grupo de animais controle (não obstruídos). Os fragmentos da bexiga foram preparados para microscopia de luz. Cortes seriados foram realizados para o estudo morfométrico e estereológico. Os três eixos: crânio-caudal (CC), dorso-ventral (DV) e latero-lateral (LL) aumentaram em todos os grupos analisados: controle, 3, 7 e 12 semanas. Os valores para CC foram estatisticamente similares para 3, 7 e 12 semanas. O mesmo foi observado no eixo DV. Os valores para o eixo LL foram similares para os grupos de 7 e 12 semanas. O estudo morfométrico baseou-se em determinar o tamanho da fibra (área seccional) e comprimento da fibra muscular. Nos animais do grupo de 3, 7 e 12 semanas foi observado um aumento de 4,63x, 4,32x e 7,10x no tamanho celular e um decréscimo de 2,55x, 1,94x e 4,04x no comprimento da fibra muscular quando comparados ao grupo controle. O estudo estereológico baseou-se em estimar o volume referência (Vref), a densidade numérica (Nv), o número total de fibras musculares (N), a densidade de volume (Vv) e o volume da fibra muscular (Vn). O Vref apresentou um aumento de 11,07x, 7,98x e 31,7x quando comparado com o grupo controle. A densidade numérica (Nv) aumentou 0,06x e 0,05x para os grupos de 3 e 7 semanas, respectivamente, em relação ao grupo controle. O grupo de 12 semanas, no entanto, apresentou um decréscimo de 0,01x em comparação com o grupo controle. Os grupos de 3, 7 e 12 semanas apresentaram, respectivamente, um aumento de 0,81x, 12,56x e 38,43x em número total de células. A densidade de volume (Vv) para os grupos de 3, 7 e 12 semanas apresentou um aumento de 0,97x, 0,56x e 0,86x em relação ao grupo controle. E finalmente, o volume médio da fibra muscular apresentou um aumento de 0,62x, 0,81x e 0,82x, respectivamente para os animais de 3, 7 e 12 semanas. Os dois mecanismos: hipertrofia e hiperplasia ocorrem na bexiga urinária de coelhos, porém não sabemos a seqüência exata em que aparecem. / The effects of partial urethral obstruction on rabbit´s urinary bladder musculature were investigated using stereological designed methods. A total of 12 female Norfolk rabbits weighing from 2.5 to 3 kg were used. A retro-umbilical celiotomy was made to expose the urinary bladder. The urethra´s dorsal wall was isolated from its association with the uterus. A 3mm-Steinmann-pin was positioned on the urethra to produce a standard degree of obstruction and a ligature was tied up around it, using a 2-0 nylon silk. Three, seven and twelve weeks after the surgery procedures the rabbits were euthanised. Bladder fragments were prepared for light microscopy. Serial sections were performed to morphometric and stereological study. In relation to the bladder axis: cranio-caudal (CC), dorso-ventral (DV) and latero-lateral (LL) increased in all groups analysed: control, 3, 7 and 12 week-obstructed animals. Values for CC were statistically similar for 3, 7 and 12-week-obstructed groups. The same was observed for DV axis. The LL axis showed values statistically similar for 7 and 12-week-obstructed groups. The morphometric study was based on the muscle fibre size (sectional area) and the muscle fibre length. In 3, 7 and 12-week-obstructed animals, it was observed a 4.63, 4.32 and 7.10-fold cell size increase and a 2.55, 1.94 and 4.04-fold decrease in length, respectively, when compared to control group. As for the stereological study. Vref presented a 11.07, 7.98 and 31.7-fold increase when compared to control subjects. Numerical density (Nv) increased by 0.06 and 0.05 in 3 and 7-week-obstructed groups, respectively, in relation to control group. Twelve week-obstructed group. Presented however a 0.01x-decrease compared to control animals. Three, seven and twelve-week-obstructed groups presented, respectively, 0.81, 12.56 and 38.43-fold increase in total number of cells (N). Volume density presented a 0.97, 0.56 and 0.86-fold increase in 3, 7 and 12-week-obstructed groups, respectively. And finally, mean muscle cell volume (Vn) presented a 0.62, 0.81 and 0.82-fold in 3, 7 and 12-week obstructed groups, respectively. Both mechanisms: hypertrophy and hyperplasia happened to occur on rabbit´s urinary bladder, thought we do not know the exact sequence in which they appear altogether.

Une des propriétés majeures de la thrombine est le caractère pléiotropique de ses effets physiologiques et pathologiques à la fois dans le compartiment sanguin et tissulaire de la paroi. La voie de signalisation RhoA est activée par la fixation de la thrombine aux récepteurs PARs et cette voie est un régulateur principal de la mécanotransduction et de la plasticité cellulaire. Le facteur d’échange de RhoA, Arhgef1, est impliqué dans le développement de l’hypertension dépendante de l’angiotensine II et dans l’athérothrombose. Notre hypothèse est que le contrôle de la signalisation intracellulaire de RhoA par Arhgef1 est un élément régulateur de la coagulation plasmatique et pourrait participer aux modifications phénotypiques des plaquettes et des cellules vasculaires et ainsi contribuer à l’augmentation de la génération de thrombine tissulaire. Les objectifs ont été de caractériser la génération de thrombine et la fonction plaquettaire depuis leur activation jusqu’à leurs implications dans un modèle de thrombose tissulaire et d’étudier le rôle prothrombotique des cellules musculaires lisses vasculaires (CMLVs) chez des souris Arhgef1 -/-. Résultats : Les souris Arhgef1-/- ont une numération plaquettaire normale mais présentent une diminution significative de l’activation plaquettaire, de la génération de thrombine en sang total et en présence de plaquettes (mais pas en plasma pauvre en plaquettes) et de l’adhérence plaquettaire par rapport aux souris contrôles. Ces modifications se traduisent, in vivo, par un plus grand nombre d’arrêts transitoires de l’écoulement sanguin dans le modèle de saignement à la queue et un allongement du temps de survenue du thrombus occlusif carotidien en réponse au FeCl3 chez les souris Arhgef1 -/- comparées aux contrôles. Les CMLVs des souris Arhgef1 -/- génèrent moins de thrombine à leur surface et ont une prolifération diminuée par rapport aux CMLVs des souris contrôles. En conclusion, les résultats démontrent le rôle d’Arhgef1 dans les fonctions plaquettaires et dans la régulation du phénotype des CMLVs. Le mécanisme principal fait intervenir la Rho GTPase dans l’adhésion plaquettaire et la génération de thrombine à la surface CMLVs qui contrôlent la formation du thrombus. Ces résultats suggèrent que ce facteur d’échange est capable d’amplifier la thrombose artérielle et pourrait être impliqué via les récepteurs à la thrombine dans le couplage thrombine tissulaire-rigidité cellulaire via les plaquettes et les CMLVs dans les pathologies vasculaires. / One of the major properties of thrombin is the pleiotropic character of its physiological and pathological effects in both the blood and the tissue compartment of the vessel wall. The RhoA signaling pathway is activated by the binding of thrombin to the PARs receptors and this pathway is a major regulator of mechanotransduction and cellular plasticity. The RhoA exchange factor, Arhgef1, is involved in the development of angiotensin II-dependent hypertension and in atherothrombosis. Our hypothesis is that the control of intracellular RhoA signaling by Arhgef1 is a regulatory element of plasma coagulation and could participate in phenotypic modifications of platelets and vascular cells and thus contribute to the increase of tissue thrombin generation. The objectives were to characterize thrombin generation and platelet function from their activation to their implications in a model of tissue thrombosis, and to study the prothrombotic role of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) in Arhgef1 -/- mice. Results: Arhgef1 -/- mice had a normal platelet count but showed a significant decrease in platelet activation, thrombin generation in whole blood and in the presence of platelets (but not in platelet poor plasma) and platelet adhesion compared to control mice. These modifications result, in vivo, by a greater number of transitory stopping of the blood flow in the tail bleeding model and an increase in the time of occurrence of the carotid occlusive thrombus in response to FeCl3 in Arhgef1 -/- mice compared to controls. The VSMCs of Arhgef1 -/- mice generate less thrombin at their surface and have decreased proliferation compared to VSMCs of the control mice. In conclusion, the results demonstrate the role of Arhgef1 in platelet function and in the regulating of the phenotype of VSMCs. The main mechanism involves Rho GTPase in platelet adhesion and in thrombin generation at the VSMC surface that control thrombus formation. These results suggest that this exchange factor is able to amplify aterial thrombosis and could be involved via thrombin receptors in tissue thrombin-cell stiffness coupling via platelets and VSMCs in vascular pathologies.

Nox1 is of considerable importance because of its involvement in a wide variety of pathologies. Activation of Nox1 induces generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and cell migration, events critical for the pathogenesis of cardiovascular disease, amyotropic lateral sclerosis, gastrointestinal disease, immunological disorders, and multiple forms of cancer [1-8]. In order to best determine how to treat Nox1-mediated disease, we must gain a better understanding of the mechanisms that control Nox1 activation. Within the last decade, many studies have found that protein phosphorylation and protein trafficking are critical regulatory mechanisms that control the activation of multiple Nox proteins. Yet, to date, no studies have characterized Nox1 phosphorylation or trafficking. We hypothesized that the activity of Nox1 is controlled by its phosphorylation at specific residues and by its sub-cellular localization; and that modifying Nox1 phosphorylation or localization will alter Nox1-dependent signaling. To test this hypothesis, we utilized both in vivo and in vitro approaches. We found that phosphorylation of Nox1 is significantly increased under pathological conditions in three in vivo models: (1) in atherosclerotic vs. normal aorta from monkey, (2) in neointimal vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) vs. medial VSMCs from rat following aortic balloon injury, and (3) in ligated vs. normal carotid from mouse. Studies using mass spectroscopy, pharmacological inhibition, siRNA, and in vitro phosphorylation identify PKC-βI as a kinase that mediates Nox1 phosphorylation and subsequent ROS production and VSMC migration. Site-directed mutagenesis of predicted Nox1 phospho-residues revealed that cells expressing mutant Nox1 T429A have a significant decrease in TNF-α-stimulated ROS production, VSMC migration and Nox1 NADPH oxidase complex assembly compared to cells expressing wild-type Nox1. Isothermal calorimetry (ITC) revealed that a peptide containing the Activation Domain of NoxA1 (LEPMDFLGKAKVV) binds to phosphorylated Nox1 peptide (KLK-phos-T(429)- QKIYF) but not non-phosphorylated Nox1 peptide. These findings indicate that phosphorylation of Nox1 residue T429 by PKC-βI promotes TNF-α-induced Nox1 NADPH oxidase complex assembly, ROS production, and VSMC migration. Nox1 localization and trafficking studies reveal that Nox1 endocytosis is necessary for TNF-α-induced Nox1 ROS production; and that mutation of a Nox1 VLV motif inhibits Nox1 endocytosis and ROS production. These studies have provided new evidence that phosphorylation and sub-cellular localization are involved in the regulation of Nox1 ROS production and cell migration and offer new insights as to how Nox1 activity can be targeted for the purpose of treating Nox1-mediated diseases.