The understanding of the spatial distribution of lead (Pb) in soil is important in the assessment of potential risks and development of remediation strategies for Pb contaminated land. In situ heterogeneity of Pb was measured at two heavily contaminated sites in the United Kingdom using the Portable X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometer (P-XRF) over a range of spatial scales (0.02 to 50 m). The pattern of the distribution of Pb was very variable, and when expressed as heterogeneity factor (HF), it ranged from 1.2 to 3.2 (highly heterogeneous). The effect of such Pb heterogeneity on plant uptake was investigated in greenhouse pot trials. Two earlier pot trials, which assessed the effect of Pb in a fixed concentration (1000 mg/kg) and in a range of concentration (100 to 10000 mg/kg) found a significant effect of the Pb added treatments, when compared to a control treatment (0 mg/kg Pb added). Biomass and uptake varied by 20 to 100% within and between 16 species/varieties. Results enhanced the selection of two species (Brassica napus and Brassica juncea) for further pot trials. A third pot experiment with Brassica napus and Brassica juncea in simplistic binary model of heterogeneity found 20 to 60% lower uptake in the binary treatment, than homogeneous the treatment. Biomass was higher by 10 to 50% in Brassica juncea and 20 to 40% lower for B. napus in the bianary treatment, when compared to the homogeneous and control treatments. The effect of a more realistic in situ heterogeneity on plant uptake was investigated in a further pot trial, which simulated low (LH), medium) (MH) and high (HH) heterogeneity treatments, compared to a homogeneous (HO) treatment. It detected a significant (P < 0.05) impact of heterogeneity on biomass and uptake between treatments and species. Four to five fold lower biomass were recorded in HH treatment, when compared to the HO treatment. Shoot and root uptake in (mg/kg) concentration increased with increasing heterogeneity with peak uptake (twice as high as HO treatment) in LH for B. napus and in HH and MH treatments for B. juncea respectively. Shoot and root Pb masses in (μg) were maximum in HO and MH treatments respectively with 50 to 70% lower Pb mass in the HH treatment. Results showed that response to heterogeneity is species specific. A sub-experiment explored the behaviour of plant roots in HH treatment and found 20 to 80% variation in root biomass between concentric patches with same nominal soil Pb concentrations. This provided insights into varied responses of these species to realistic Pb heterogeneity. The research demonstrated that the presence and extent of in situ heterogeneity of Pb in soil plays an important role in Pb uptake by plants. It also showed that the homogeneous and simplistic binary model of heterogeneity do not give reliable estimates of plant growth and Pb uptake in realistic field conditions. This work has implications for improving the efficiency of phytoremediation of Pb contaminated land, phytomining, reliability of risk assessment and models of human exposure to Pb.

Heterogeneity of contaminants in soils can vary spatially over a range of scales, causing uncertainty in environmental measurements of contaminant concentrations. Sampling designs may aim to reduce the impact of on-site heterogeneity, by using composite sampling, increased sample mass and off-site homogenisation, yet they could overlook the small scale heterogeneity that can have significant implications for plant uptake of contaminants. Moreover, composite sampling and homogenisation may not be relevant to target receptor behaviour, e.g. plants, and studies, using simplistic models of heterogeneity have shown that it can significantly impact plant uptake of contaminants. The alternative approach, to accept and quantify heterogeneity, requires further exploration as contaminant heterogeneity is inevitable within soils and its quantification should enable improved reliability in risk assessment and understanding variability in plant contaminant uptake. This thesis reports the development of a new sampling design, to characterise and quantify contaminant heterogeneity at scales, from 0.02m to 20m, using in situ measurement techniques, and 0.005m to 0.0005m, using ex situ techniques. The design was implemented at two contaminated land sites, with contrasting heterogeneity based upon historic anthropogenic activity and showed heterogeneity varying between contaminants and at different spatial scales, for Pb, Cu and Zn. Secondly, this research demonstrates how contaminant heterogeneity measured in situ can be recreated in a pot experiment, at a scale specific to the plant under study. Results, from 4 different plant species, demonstrated that existing simplistic models of heterogeneity are an inadequate proxy for plant performance and contaminant uptake under field conditions, and significant differences were found in plant contaminant concentrations between simplistic models and those based upon actual site measurements of heterogeneity. Implications of heterogeneity on plant roots were explored in the final experiment showing significant differences in root biomass between patches of differing contaminant concentrations.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-11T19:31:02Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2013-02-28Bitstream added on 2014-06-13T20:21:40Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 oliveira_ir_dr_jabo.pdf: 1053610 bytes, checksum: 79bee7312be01a72128aeb236b4d6722 (MD5) / O tratamento das incertezas associadas às predições dos atributos de solos é de suma importância para aumentar a confiabilidade dos métodos geoestatísticos e incrementar o desenvolvimento de tecnologias que permitam o manejo localizado e aumente a eficiência das atividades agrícolas. Neste trabalho, foi avaliado o desempenho dos métodos de interpolação geoestatísticos no que diz respeito, principalmente, ao tratamento das incertezas associadas às predições desses métodos. Foram avaliados dois métodos de simulação estocástica, a simulação sequencial gaussiana (SSG) e a simulação sequencial indicatriz (SSI), comparando com o método já consagrado krigagem ordinária (KO). Foi realizado um estudo de caso, com os atributos do solo fósforo (P) disponível e potássio (K) disponível no solo, em uma malha amostral com 626 pontos, instalada em uma área experimental de cana-de-açúcar no município de Tabapuã, São Paulo. Foram geradas 200 realizações por meio de cada algoritmo de simulação. As simulações estocásticas reproduziram as estatísticas e a variabilidade dos dados amostrais de K e P, enquanto a KO promoveu superestimativa e subestimativa dos baixos e altos valores, respectivamente. O mapa de desvio-padrão obtido a partir da KO apresentou menor variação ao longo da área de estudo, quando comparado aos mapas de desvio-padrão obtidos a partir das simulações da SSG e SSI. Os mapas simulados por meio da SSG e da SSI representaram a distribuição espacial do P e do K de forma mais realista do que o mapa de estimação fornecido pela KO. As técnicas SSG e SSI mostraram-se mais eficientes para modelar a incerteza da distribuição espacial do P e do K do que a técnica KO. A avaliação da incerteza, obtida por meio das técnicas de simulação, pode ser utilizada para definir, de forma mais confiável, áreas de manejo específico / The treatment of uncertainties associated with predictions of soil attributes is critical to increase the reliability of geostatistical methods and encourage the development of technologies that allow for localized management and increase the efficiency of agricultural. In this study, was evaluated the performance of geostatistical interpolation methods with regard mainly to the treatment of uncertainties associated with the predictions of these methods. Was evaluated two methods of stochastic simulation, sequential gaussian simulation (SGS) and sequential indicator simulation (SIS), comparing with the method ordinary kriging (OK). A case study was conducted with the soil attributes available phosphorus (P) and available potassium (K) in a sample grid with 626 points, installed in sugarcane experimental area at Tabapuã, São Paulo, Brazil. Two hundred realizations were generated by each simulation algorithm. The stochastic simulations reproduced the statistics and variability of the sample data of P and K, while the OK promoted the overestimation and the underestimation of low and high values, respectively. The map of standard deviation obtained from the OK showed less variation along the study area compared to maps of standard deviation obtained from the SGS simulations and SIS. The simulated maps generated through SGS and SIS represents spatial distribution of P and K more realistically than an estimation map obtained by OK. The SGS techniques and SIS were more efficient to model the uncertainty of the spatial distribution of P and K than the technical OK. The evaluation of uncertainty, obtained through simulation techniques can be used to define more reliably, specific management areas

Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-11T19:31:02Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2013-04-15Bitstream added on 2014-06-13T20:21:40Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 resende_jma_dr_jabo.pdf: 2854598 bytes, checksum: cd5c3f382c74968f98d76b0a5695252f (MD5) / O cultivo de solos com maior potencial de resposta ao manejo é condição essencial para o estabelecimento de uma agricultura sustentável de alta tecnologia. O presente trabalho teve como objetivo geral caracterizar, por técnicas pedométricas, a fertilidade a granulometria e a cor dos Argissolos coesos do Leste Maranhense, e por objetos específicos: caracterizar a variabilidade espacial de atributos e cor do solo em áreas agrícolas e mata nativa, no município de Brejo – MA, localizado na região leste do Maranhão; Utilizar os constituintes da cor do solo obtidos por espectroscopia de reflectância difusa na faixa do visível, como indicador de compartimentos específicos do manejo da fertilidade dos solos coesos do Leste Maranhense. Para a instalação do experimento, foram selecionados três compartimentos representados por uma área cultivada com soja e a cobertura vegetal remanescente de três feições de cerrado, denominadas Cerradão, Cerrado Típico e Campo Cerrado. Os compartimentos com cobertura de Cerradão e Cerrado Típico encontram-se localizados em pedoforma côncava, e aquele recoberto por Campo Cerrado, em pedoforma convexa. Os padrões de variabilidade foram diferentes, sendo que o ambiente com maior variabilidade está relacionado com locais de ocorrência de vegetação do tipo Campo Cerrado, em pedoforma convexa, sugerindo ser este o ambiente de menor capacidade de suporte ao manejo da cultura da soja. Em 0,5 g de cada amostra moída e seca ao ar (TFSA), foram determinados os valores de reflectância na faixa de 380 a 780 nm, a partir dos quais foram determinados os valores do matiz, valor e croma. A partir destes constituintes da cor, foi calculado o índice de avermelhamento para cada amostra. Esses valores foram correlacionados com fósforo remanescente, capacidade de troca... / The cultivation of soils with greater potential for response to land is essential for the establishment of a sustainable agricultural technology. This study aimed to characterize, by pedometrics techniques, color, granulometry and fertility of Ultisols cohesive Eastern Maranhense, and specific objects characterize the spatial variability of soil attributes and color in agricultural areas and native vegetation in town of Brejo, located in the eastern region of Maranhao State, Brasil. Using the constituents of soil color obtained by difuse reflectance spectroscopy in the visible range, as an indicator of specific compartments of the management of soil fertility. For the experiment, we selected three compartments represented by an area cultivated with soybeans and vegetation cover remaining three features of cerrado, called Savana, Typical Cerrado and Cerrado Field. The compartments coverage Savana and Savannah Typical are located in concave landform, and that covered by Campo Cerrado in convex landform. The variability patterns were different, and the environment with greater variability is related to the occurrence of local vegetation in Campo Cerrado in convex landform, suggesting that this is the environment less able to support the management of soybean. 0.5 g of each sample, milled and air dried were measured reflectance values in the range 380-780 nm, from which was determined the values of hue, value and chroma. From these color components, we calculated the redness index for each sample. These values were correlated with remaining phosphorus, cation exchange capacity, percent base saturation and clay content of the samples. The results showed that the constituents of the color thus obtained can be used in the prediction of... (Complete abstract click electronic access below)

Orientador: Ciro Antonio Rosolem / Banca: Carlos Alexandre Crusciol / Banca: Dirceu Maximino Fernandes / Banca: Adonis Moreira / Banca: Cristiano Alberto de Andrade / Resumo: Uma opção viável para mitigação de gases de efeito estufa, na agricultura, é aumentar o aporte orgânico no sistema, através de plantas. A prática da calagem em solos ácidos é indispensável para a melhoria da acidez e contribui para o aumento de produção de grãos e biomassa; por outro lado, resulta em emissão de carbono para a atmosfera. O uso do calcário ou silicato associado ao gesso pode ser eficiente em melhorar o balanço de carbono no sistema, quando comparado apenas com a aplicação isolada desses corretivos, por proporcionar maior crescimento radicular. Assim, o presente trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar a emissão de gases de efeito estufa, bem como alterações no estoque de carbono no perfil do solo, em função da correção da acidez. O experimento foi conduzido em Botucatu, SP, na Fazenda Experimental Lageado, em duas áreas pareadas, uma em semeadura direta e outra em sistema convencional de cultivo, tendo como cultura de verão a soja, seguida de safrinha com milho + braquiária (Urochloa ruziziensis cv. Comum), no primeiro ano, e milheto + braquiária, no segundo ano. Os tratamentos foram: testemunha, calcário, silicato, gesso + calcário, gesso + silicato. Amostras de solo deformadas e indeformadas foram coletadas até 1m de profundidade antes da aplicação dos tratamentos e na semeadura ... / Abstract: Economically viable options to mitigate emissions of greenhouse gases include increasing the stocks of croplands. The use of liming acid soils is essential to correct soil acidity and contributes to high production resulting in carbon emission in the atmosphere. The use of lime or silicate application with gypsum may improve the balance of soil carbon through increased root growth compared to the use of lime only. The main objective of this work is to study changes in the carbon storage in the soil profile as well as changes in carbon emission affected by soil acidity amelioration. The experiment was carried out in an Oxisol in Botucatu, São Paulo at the Lageado Experimental Farm under no tillage and another in a conventional system area. Crop cultivation was soybean in the summer and corn+Urucloa in the winter in the first year, and millet+Urocloa in second year cultivation. The experimental design was a randomized block with five treatments and four replications. The treatments were: control, lime, silicate, gypsum+ lime and gypsum+ silicate. Deformed and under formed soil samples of both experimental areas were taken at a depth of one meter before treatment applications and in soybean sown in November. In the first year, soil samples were collected at depths from 0 to 0.6 m. Soil fertility, carbon content, organic matter physical fractionation and bulk density were evaluated. Contribution and the persistence of the amount of straw produced in each crop and input of carbon was also evaluated. Leaf analysis, root quantification, grain yield and carbon content in the grains and roots were also analyzed. CO2, CH4 and N2O fluxes were determined from the soil using static chambers and were measured after the treatment applications, soybean planting in the summer and winter crops, in March 2013 and 2014 under corn+Urochloa and millet+Urochloa. Gas fluxes were measured for 22 months, totaling 80 ... / Doutor

O Brasil é um país expressivo na produção de alimentos, assim para melhorar a eficiência da agricultura se faz necessário seu planejamento. O solo é a base para a agricultura sendo relevante nas questões de segurança alimentar e qualidade ambiental. Dados obtidos por sensoriamento remoto podem auxiliar no levantamento, mapeamento e manejo do solo, que são estratégicos para uma agricultura planejada. As técnicas de espectroscopia de refletância são mais rápidas, menos onerosas e menos poluentes quando comparado aos métodos tradicionais de análise de solos. Um banco de dados com informações de espectros de solo é denominado Biblioteca Espectral (BE). Por meio de uma BE é possível caracterizar classes de solo e estimar atributos. As BEs além de contribuir para o levantamento, mapeamento, manejo de solos e ainda pode auxiliar na agricultura de precisão, modelagem de atributos do solo, monitoramento de solos contaminados, comunicação entre pedólogos e conservação dos solos. Existem Bibliotecas Espectrais de Solos (BES) a nível mundial com amostras de continentes, tais como a Austrália, Europa, Ásia, África e Américas, porém poucas amostras Brasileiras representativas. Sendo assim, o objetivo deste trabalho é elaborar uma primeira versão da BE de solos do Brasil (BESB), caracterizar os espectros das classes de solos e quantificar atributos do solo (argila e areia). O banco recebeu amostras de 17 colaboradores e instituições de diversos estados brasileiros, que incluem: Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina, São Paulo, Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, Mato Grosso do Sul, Mato Grosso, Goiás, Maranhão, Pernambuco, Rio Grande do Norte, Ceará, Paraíba, Pará, Roraima, Amazonas e Distrito Federal. No total 19.537 curvas espectrais de solo provenientes de tradagens e perfis foram caracterizados, essas amostras são de várias classes de solos do Brasil. Perfis de solo e seus horizontes representativos tiveram seus espectros caracterizados em curvas multi-espectrais em profundidade. Foi gerado um modelo de quantificação dos atributos baseado na regressão dos mínimos quadrados parciais (PLSR). Os resultados obtidos para os modelos de quantificação foram utilizados para calibração da fração argila (calibração R2 = 0,82; RMSE = 46,75 g/kg, validaçãp R2 = 0,83 ; RMSE = 46,75 g/kg; RPD = 4,57) e areia (calibração R2 = 0,81; RMSE = 60,9 g/kg, validação R2 = 0,79, RMSE = 60,85 g/kg; RPD = 4,16). Foi possível distinguir diferentes classes de solos através da Análise dos Componentes Principais (ACP), como Organossolos, Latossolos, Argissolos e Nitossolos. A elaboração da BESB permite estabelecer padrões espectrais dos solos e auxilia nos avanços das técnicas de quantificação de atributos. / Brazil is a significant country in food production and to improve efficiency of agriculture is necessary to be planned. Soil is the basis for agriculture, which is relevant for food safety and environmental issues. Mapping and soil management are strategies for planned agriculture and can be assisted by remote sensing. Spectroscopy techniques are faster, less honorable and less polluting when compared to traditional methods. Soils Spectral Library (SSL) composes a diverse and varied database with soil spectra information. Through SSL soil types can be characterize and soil attributes estimated. SSL besides contribute to the soil survey, mapping and soil management it can support precision agriculture, soil attribute modeling, soil contaminated monitoring, communication between the soil scientists and soil conservation. There are SSL worldwide with soil samples from continents, such as Australia, Europe, Asia, Africa and the Americas, but there are few Brazilian samples representative. Thus, the objectives of this study were first to create a Brazilian Soil Spectral Library (BSSB), second to characterize soil spectra of BESB soil classes and finally to quantify soil properties (clay and sand). The BSSL bank received samples from 17 collaborators and institutions from various Brazilian states, including Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina, São Paulo, Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, Mato Grosso do Sul, Mato Grosso, Goiás, Maranhão, Pernambuco, Rio Grande do Norte, Ceará, Paraíba, Pará, Roraima, Amazonas and Distrito Federal. The Spectral Library has 19,537 soil samples from auger and profiles. Spectra of several Brazilian soil classes were characterized. Soil profiles and their horizons had their representative spectra characterized with multi-depth analysis. Quantification model of soil attributes was based on partial least squares regression (PLSR). Prediction models were obtained to quantify clay (calibration R2 = 0,82; RMSE = 46,75 g/kg, validaçãp R2 = 0,83 ; RMSE = 46,75 g/kg; RPD = 4,57) and sand (calibration R2 = 0,81; RMSE = 60,9 g/kg, validação R2 = 0,79, RMSE = 60,85 g/kg; RPD = 4,16). In addition, we distinguish different soil classes by Principal Component Analysis (PCA). Organossolos, Latossolos, Argissolos and Nitossolos were well separated. BESB assembly assisted to establish spectral patterns of land and it could improve advancing attributes techniques measurement.

Submitted by Sandra Pereira (srpereira@ufrrj.br) on 2018-08-24T12:57:37Z No. of bitstreams: 1 2010 - Roberta Prates Belem.pdf: 2832998 bytes, checksum: 8f3e43b92b370beb4b55a175c8605f21 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-24T12:57:37Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 2010 - Roberta Prates Belem.pdf: 2832998 bytes, checksum: 8f3e43b92b370beb4b55a175c8605f21 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010-11-05 / It is known that environmental issues are increasingly being focus of attention and discussion in society and, in this context, it can be said that the pedological study from the concept, evolution, formation and use of soil is essential in the context for the referring discussions to the society and nature, that are pertinent subjects to the Geographic Science, mainly in the Basic Education that acts in the formation, abilities and competences. For this reason, the study of Pedology becomes in such a way primordial in the scope of formal education (as for example the content of the PCN?s), as well as in the informal education, approaching the importance of its knowledge for the conservation, being this essential to the premises of a sustainable use. It is worth standing out that, although there is an effort of the Geography teachers in the treatment of teaching the soils related do nature in the Medium Education and mainly in contents of the didactic books, we come across problems of understanding and transposition of concepts, of partial and inconsistent explanations and that is several times unstable for the understanding of the processes and their formation. It can be said that in this context one of the most used instruments in the teaching-learning process is the didactic book, which has as its main use to present the study of contents, to motivate activities that allow the construction of knowledge from the reflection and solution of activities, from the observation of phenomena, from events and facts in different scales of the analysis, thus bringing about the development of the creativity and the criticism. Thus aiming at improving the quality of the didactic books in 2006, the Ministry of Education ? MEC ? established criteria for the adoption of this material of Geography through the National Program of the Didactic Book for the Medium Education ? PNLEM for 2007. The fifteen (15) didactic Geography books of the Medium Education recommended by MEC were analyzed exclusively in its aspect of Pedology, but specifically in the subject soil. In the works in question, the approaches of each author on the contents related to Pedology were analyzed and pointed out, as many solutions were provided, in the attempt to supply the necessity of understanding the contents of use and importance of its study. It is suggested thus a better organization and deepening of the subject in didactic books in order to stimulate the interest of the pupil, making him understand the relation and the importance of the subject to the daily questions of the world. / Sabe-se que as quest?es ambientais v?m cada vez mais sendo foco de aten??o e discuss?o na sociedade, e neste contexto pode-se dizer que o estudo pedol?gico a partir do conceito, evolu??o, forma??o e uso de solo ? essencial no contexto para as discuss?es referentes ? sociedade e natureza, que s?o temas pertinentes ? Ci?ncia Geogr?fica, principalmente no Ensino B?sico que atua na forma??o, habilidades e compet?ncias. Por esse motivo, o estudo da pedologia torna-se primordial tanto no ?mbito do ensino formal (como por exemplo, conte?do dos PCN?s), assim como na educa??o informal abordando a import?ncia de seu conhecimento para a conserva??o, sendo este, essencial ?s premissas de um uso sustent?vel. Cabe ressaltar que embora haja um esfor?o no tratamento do ensino de solos relacionado ? natureza em n?vel do Ensino M?dio pelos professores de geografia, e principalmente nos conte?dos dos livros did?ticos, depara-se com problemas de entendimento e transposi??o de conceitos, de explica??es parciais e inconsistentes, e que por diversas vezes ? inconsistente para a compreens?o dos processos e de sua forma??o. Pode-se dizer que neste contexto um dos instrumentos mais utilizados no processo de ensino-aprendizagem ? o livro did?tico, o qual tem como a utiliza??o para apresentar o estudo de conte?dos, motivar atividades que permita a constru??o do conhecimento, a partir da reflex?o e solu??o de atividades, da observa??o de fen?menos, de acontecimentos e fatos em diferentes escalas da an?lise, acarretando assim no desenvolvimento da criatividade e da cr?tica. Desta forma, visando melhorar a qualidade dos livros did?ticos em 2006 o Minist?rio da Educa??o ? MEC, estabeleceu crit?rios para ado??o desse material de Geografia atrav?s do Programa Nacional do Livro Did?tico para o Ensino M?dio ? PNLEM para 2007. Os quinze (15) livros did?ticos de Ensino M?dio de Geografia recomendados pelo MEC, foram analisados exclusivamente em sua abordagem de Pedologia, mas especificamente no tema Solos. Nas obras, em quest?o, foram analisadas e apontadas as abordagens de cada autor sobre os conte?dos relacionados a pedologia, tanto solu??es fornecidas na tentativa de suprir a necessidade de entendimento quanto a conte?dos de uso e import?ncia se seu estudo. Sugere-se assim, uma melhor organiza??o e aprofundamento do assunto nos livros did?ticos, a fim de despertar o interesse do aluno, fazendo-o entender a rela??o e a import?ncia do tema com as quest?es cotidianas do mundo.

Thesis (M. Agric. (Plant Production)) -- University of Limpopo, 2018 / The evergreen Red Milkwood (Mimusops zeyheri Sond.) is being targeted as a rural and urban-greening tree in Limpopo Province, due to its excellent nutritional, pharmaceutical and aesthetic attributes. Slow growth of M. zeyheri seedlings is the main drawback in the potential domestication and commercialisation of this tree species. The objectives of this study were to determine (1) the influence of soil type on root growth and foliar nutrient elements in M. zeyheri seedlings, (2) the degree of salt tolerance in M. zeyheri seedlings and (3) the influence of vesicular arbuscular mycorrhiza (VAM) fungi on growth of M. zeyheri seedlings. Objective 1 was achieved in clay, calcareous, loam and sandy soils. At 60 days after the treatments, soil type effects were significant on plant height, leaf number, chlorophyll content of primary leaves (dicots), chlorophyll content of secondary leaves, root length, number of root branches and dry root mass, contributing 60, 72, 84, 85, 74, 80 and 40% in total treatment variation (TTV) of the respective variables. Objective 2 was achieved by exposing seedlings to 0, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64 and 128 NaCl + CaCl2 mM/m3 at 3:1 ratio. At 90 days after the treatments, salinity effects were significant on leaf number, dry shoot mass, root length and leaf length, contributing 73, 60, 50 and 64% in TTV of the respective variables. Leaf number, dry shoot mass, root length and leaf length each against increasing concentration of salinity exhibited positive curvilinear quadratic relations, with 74, 91, 95 and 66% associations, respectively. Responses of essential nutrient accumulation in leaf tissues of M. zeyheri to salt treatments had significant effects on K and Na, contributing 28 and 19% in TTV of the respective variables. Potassium over increasing salt concentrations exhibited positive quadratic relations and Na over increasing salt concentrations, exhibited negative quadratic relations. The models for each relation were explained by 95 and 86%, respectively. Objective 3 was achieved by exposing seedlings to 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60 and 70 g VAM per plant. At 90 days after the treatments, VAM effects were significant on plant height, leaf number, stem diameter and chlorophyll content contributing, 49, 65, 60 and 61% in TTV of the respective variables. Plant height, leaf number and chlorophyll content each against increasing VAM levels exhibited negative quadratic relations, with 97, 83 and 80% associates, respectively. In conclusion, the use of soil type to promote growth and accumulation of essential nutrient elements on M. zeyheri seedlings demonstrated that clay soil could be suitable for cultivation of M. zeyheri. Also chloride salt concentrations included all three phases of density-dependent growth (DDG) patterns, whereas VAM levels used in the study were already in the last two phases of DDG patterns. Vesicular arbuscular mycorrhiza treatment did not have significant effects on Ca, Fe, K, Na and Zn in leaf tissues of M. zeyheri seedlings. In conclusion, soil with high clay content could be ideal when raising M. zeyheri seedlings. However, salt concentration of 8.11 mM/m3 exhibited the stimulation of M. zeyheri seedlings growth, Therefore, lower concentration less than 8.11 mM/m3 shown to be toxic by reducing the plant growth. In contrast, 5.554 g per plant of VAM will supreme for growth and development of M. zeyheri seedlings.

Lime-induced chlorosis has been recognized for many years as a problem where plants are grown on calcareous soils. There are many factors associated with and influencing this form of iron chlorosis and because of this it has been very difficult to determine the relationship between the factors and chlorosis. There are high concentrations of bicarbonate in calcareous soils. Because of this high concentration, it was believed that the presence of the bicarbonate ion was causing chlorosis. It has been proposed that the pH of the growth medium was the causitive factor of lime-induced chlorosis. Most calcareous soils have a pH range around 8.0. At this pH the solubility of iron is very low, and it was believed that chlorosis was a result of iron being insoluble at a high pH. Iron chlorosis has been induced in plants by increasing the phosphorus concentration in the growth medium. Iron phosphates have a low solubility and it was believed that the available iron was precipitated by the phosphates. The interference of metals such as calcium, nickel, cobalt, zinc, and copper appears to be a factor affecting the absorption of iron by plants. It was thought that an interfering ion (Ni, Co, Ca, Zn) may interfere with the translocation of iron in the malic or malonic acid complexes (Tiffin and Brown, 1962).

Sodium saturated Utah bentonite was equilibrated in several concentrations of various sodium salt solutions. The effect of anions on the amount of sodium adsorbed was determined. The effect of anions on the electrophoretic mobility of the clay Has also studied. The results are reported herein.