This study aimed to: 1) characterise the individual San parietal art rock art paint colours; 2) relate paint compositions to erosion susceptibility; 3) determine if paint pigments can be related to pigment samples excavated from a Shelter deposit, and/or a variety of field samples; and 4) determine if paint samples from geographically distinct sites can be distinguished on their composition. A combination of mineralogical (X-ray diffraction (XRD), synchrotron micro-XRD (μ-XRD)) and chemical (energy dispersive X-ray micro-analysis (EDX), X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF), and synchrotron micro-XRF (μ-XRF)) analytical techniques were used. Maqonqo Shelter (MQ), 35 km south-east of Dundee, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, was the primary study site chosen as it contained both a large number of paintings, as well as a large deposit. Thirty paint (of various colours) and 3 blank wall samples were collected using Silver Mylar tape and analysed using a combination of EDX, μ-XRD and μ-XRF techniques. Sixty two large (> 2.5 g) ‘ochre’ pieces were selected from the upper three layers of the deposit and analysed using XRD, XRF and EDX. A further 63 small pieces (< 2.5 g) were analysed using μ-XRD and μ-XRF techniques. To compare the MQ paint samples with potential source materials, three distinct sample sets were collected. The first included samples of the Shelter wall and surface rocks located near the painted panel (analysed by XRD, XRF and EDX). A second sample set of 17 samples was collected from the surrounding landscape (± 3 km radius of MQ; analysed by XRD and XRF). Their selection was based on ease of accessibility, degree of pulverulence, and perceived Fe content i.e., red and/or yellow colouration. No white sources were found. A third set of 11 samples (obtained from six sites, analysed using XRD and XRF) was collected within ± 50 km distance of the Shelter. Their selection was based on old mining survey reports that detailed the location of Fe ore outcrops. Paint samples from three additional shelters i.e., Fergies Cave (FC), Giants Castle Game Reserve, central Drakensberg; Sheltered Vale (SV), Mount Currie District, south-western KwaZulu-Natal; and Twagwa Shelter (TW), Izingolweni District, southern KwaZulu-Natal, were collected to compare paint composition over distance. Site selection was determined according to the following criteria: 1) the shelters had to reside a significant distance away from the primary site so as to minimise any possible interaction that might have existed between the authors of the respective artworks (each site is at least 100 km distant from the other); 2) each had to be located upon a distinct geological formation so that external influences from different regions, and their possible affects on the paint samples, could be noted; and 3) the climatic regimes of each of the shelters should be relatively distinct. Fifteen paint and nine blank wall samples were collected from the three shelters (three each of red, white and blank samples; analysed using EDX, μ-XRD and μ-XRF), with the exception that no white samples were collected from FC. In total, 673 EDX, 212 μ-XRD, 378 μ-XRF, 98 XRD, 98 XRF and 6 ICP-MS traces were produced and analysed. Due to the extremely heterogeneous nature of the paint samples at the microii scale, the more generalised EDX reduced window scans were used as the basis of the paint samples’ characterisation, with the data obtained from the more precise μ-XRD and μ-XRF techniques providing additional supportive information. Irrespective of colour, almost all of the MQ paint samples had elevated Ca contents that tended to increase in the order of black < orange £ red and yellow < pink < white. The predominant Ca-based mineral was gypsum, although Ca-oxalates, whewellite and weddellite, were also present. The blank samples collected from MQ also had high gypsum content, but no Ca-oxalate. It is thus proposed that the Ca-oxalates formed after the painting event and were derived from the original paint constituents. The white pigments consisted of gypsum (dominant), anhydrite, bassanite and whewellite, or a combination thereof. Whewellite increased within increasing paint depth, while gypsum showed the reverse trend. This indicates that, whilst both gypsum and whewellite were originally present within the original paint pigment, additional gypsum has been added via secondary evaporite deposition. Although initially considered to be sourced along with the gypsum, another potential whewellite source is organic additives. The most likely source for the white pigments would be precipitates found on sandstone walls of shelters near MQ. Of more immediate importance, however, is that the pigments, being gypsum based, are water-soluble and thus susceptible to erosion. Most of the orange paints had an elevated Al content and contained gibbsite, suggesting bauxitic material associated with locally sourced dolerite within the Ecca Series within KwaZulu-Natal (as evidenced by their respective Ti levels). Two samples were so similar that it is likely that the same pigment was utilised in the creation of both images. Two samples did not contain high Al contents, however, indicating that they were probably sourced from the soft, ochreous material found within local Fe nodules. A consistent combination of goethite and haematite, together with a low Al and elevated Ti content, indicate that the yellow and red samples were probably sourced from Fe nodules found locally, the red samples differing from the yellow pigments primarily in their higher haematite content. A low Si and relatively low Fe content discounts red sands/clays and Fe-ores as sources of the red pigments. The red samples were ‘thinner’ than the other samples with quartz contents comparable to those of the blank samples. The thin nature of the red paints, the erratic distribution of whewellite upon the paint surfaces, the dominance of gypsum and, to a certain extent quartz, all strongly suggest that the red paints are at least partly absorbed into the surface of the Shelter wall. This, together with the strong staining ability of haematite, is probably the most important reason that the red pigments have outlasted images painted in other colours. It may also account for the high degree of variability found within the red paint dataset, though age differences between the sampled images could also be a contributing factor. The single dark red paint sample, except for an elevated Mn content, was very similar in many ways to the red paint samples analysed. The only readily available pigment source identified that had both low Al and high Fe and Mn contents, was plinthite. The pink samples represented the ‘middleiii ground’ between the red and white paints, suggesting that this colour was the result of a blending of the two. The black paint sample had the highest recorded Fe content of the entire paint dataset. A high Mn and relatively low Al content suggest that a soft inner core of an Fe nodule was used in its manufacture. The presence of maghemite and a dark colouration strongly suggest that the manufacture also involved calcination. The initial distinction between the paint and excavated samples was that the former all exhibited elevated Ca and S values due to the deposition of secondary evaporite minerals. Even when taking these additional deposits into account, however, the two datasets still remained distinct indicating that the excavated materials sampled were not utilised in the manufacture of the MQ paints. A potential exception concerned the orange paint samples, which were similar in composition to both doleritic samples from deeper excavated layers and the local (weathered doleritic samples) and distant (bauxite samples) field samples. Whilst weathered dolerite/bauxitic material was clearly the source of the orange pigments, a more detailed investigation is needed to find a precise location. No other relationships between the paint pigments and the excavated pigments and field samples were established. A comparison of the blank samples from all four study sites showed that the techniques used could distinguish between different sites despite sampling the smallest and, relatively speaking, poorest quality samples. The FC blank samples had elevated C and Ca contents (associated with Caoxalates). The conditions within this Shelter favour the formation of weddellite and whewellite, the former not typically found at the other three sites. In addition, low K, Si and Al contents (often associated with sandstone matrix minerals) indicate that the surface of the relatively dense, compact Cave sandstone is more resistant to physical erosion compared to the other sites, and/or FC shelter experiences a high amount of secondary deposition, with the result that a majority of the samples are composed of evaporite minerals. The SV samples were composed primarily of the evaporite-type minerals, with only minor sandstone ‘contamination’ indicated by quartz and kaolinite. The quartz content, whilst not always high, was present in most of the samples analysed, possibly indicating a greater amount of more uniform surface erosion (relative to the other sites). The TW blank samples were distinct from the other shelters’ as they contained no Ca-based minerals but did contain the very rare mineral schlossmacherite. A comparison of the paint colours also revealed differences between the different shelters. Whilst the white samples from SV and MQ are dominated by whewellite and gypsum (minerals probably present within the pigments when they were applied), the presence of quartz, sanidine and apatite in the SV samples indicated a degree of shelter wall ‘contamination’, with anhydrite, bassanite and glushinskite suggesting climatic variations that favoured various evaporite depositional regimes. The TW white paint contained minimal secondary deposited minerals common in the other shelters. The one mineral that is dominant within the TW samples is minamiite. As this mineral was not identified in any of the blank samples, it is likely that this mineral originates from the original pigment source. The TW white paints also contained 10 to 40 times more Zn than those recorded for any of the other paint samples. This was possibly present within the structure of greigite. The red SV samples could be distinguished from MQ red samples by the presence of wall ‘contaminants’ in a manner similar to that described for the white samples. The TW samples indicate a change in pigment source and/or manner of paint manufacturing technique, for these red samples contained minamiite. This mineral is white and thus its selection could not have been based on colour but rather it must represent a paint additive. With the exception of only one sample from TW, no goethite was found within any of the red samples collected from the three additional sites indicating a different haematite source to that of MQ. An interesting facet of this study, although not directly addressed, concerns what the results do not show with respect to the compositional nature of the pigments analysed. Most texts available today list a number of pigment sources stated to have been utilised in the manufacture of the San parietal rock art. This study has shown that very few of these potential sources were utilised within the four shelters investigated. In addition, this study has also highlighted the presence of minerals about which little is known, yet which appear to be commonly associated with parietal rock art. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2011.

The largest area of commercial timber plantations in southern Africa is situated along the Eastern Transvaal Drakensberg Escarpment north of Nelspruit. The site requirements of tree species in this area are poorly understood. The purpose of this study was to examine site-tree relationships in the region and the implications of such relationships for the science of forestry. Pinus patula Schiede & Deppe in Schlecht. & Cham. was selected for the study as it is the most widely planted species in the region. In Chapter 1 the geology, geomorphology, climate, soils and vegetation of the study area are described. A geological map was compiled. Soil descriptions were based on 439 soil pits distributed so as to cover the range of site conditions in the area. The regression techniques used to identify key environmental factors and to model their relationships with tree parameters are described in Chapter 2, in which site-growth relationships specifically are investigated. In mature stands of P. patula 159 plots were established in such a way as to cover the widest variation in both site conditions and tree growth. The relationship between site index (mean top height at 20 years) and 100 site plus 10 stand parameters recorded at each plot was modelled by means of best-subsets, multiple and ridge regression. Several candidate models were compared on the basis of coefficient of determination and validation using independent data. The best model predicted the site index of the validation plots within 60 cm of the measured site index. The possible roles of the site variables identified by the models are discussed. In Chapter 3 site-foliar nutrient relationships are described. A close relationship was found between foliar and soil nutrient levels for the six major geological substrates. Site index was more accurately predicted from concentrations of individual foliar nutrients than from ratios of these nutrients. The Diagnosis and Recommendation Integrated System (DRIS), however, appeared to have greater potential for nutrient diagnosis. Provisional ORIS norms for P. patula were computed. In Chapter 4 the excessive accumulation of litter in P. patula stands was examined. Undecomposed litter layers were greater than 15 cm in thickness on nearly 25% of the 159 sites studied. Average litter layers contained greater amounts of nutrients than the underlying topsoil. Due to the colonization of the litter by tree roots, the degree of immobilization of nutrients in litter is not known. Environmental factors associated with variation in litter thickness were identified by models which explained up to 73% of the total variation. These factors are considered to act indirectly by promoting or retarding decay organisms. The possible implications of litter accumulation for the maintenance of site productivity are discussed. In Chapter 5 relationships between site and some wood properties are described. Although between-tree variation was larger than between-site variation, some important relationships with site were identified. 10% of all trees on the 159 plots had severe stem bumps. Most of the variables in a model to predict the severity of bumps could be interpreted as being associated with stem stability or exposure. The conclusion was that wind is probably the major cause of this defect. The findings of the study are summarized in Chapter 6. Particular attention is given to a synthesis of the possible roles of site factors in their relationships with the tree parameters investigated. There were strong relationships between tree parameters and mainly rainfall, altitude, soil wetness, exchangeable bases, effective rooting depth, slope position and geology. The single most deficient nutrient element appeared to be calcium. The implications for both research and management are outlined. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 1990.

Scarcity of water for irrigation is a serious hindrance for small-scale farmers in sub-Saharan Africa. The use of good quality water for irrigation has resulted in increasing pressure on such water which has prompted sourcing of wastewater as an alternative. One possibility, being investigated by eThekwini Water and Sanitation (Durban, South Africa), is to install anaerobic baffled reactors within local communities to treat wastewater to allow its use for agriculture. The success of wastewater irrigation depends on the ability of the soil to assimilate the water, nutrients and any other contaminants that are applied to it. The aim of this project was to investigate the potential of an anaerobic baffled reactor (ABR) effluent as both an irrigation and nutrient source for use in peri-urban agriculture. The effluent was slightly alkaline (pH 7.40–7.60) and in class C2S1 (medium-salinity/low sodicity water) according to the United States Soil Salinity Laboratory classification for irrigation waters. It was very low in heavy metals, values being below permissible levels according to the Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO) of the United Nations and the South African Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) guidelines for water use in agriculture. The total solids were low thus particulate matter was minimal with a greater concentration of the major elements found in solution. An investigation was carried out to ascertain the behaviour of the effluent when applied to soil and how the soil was able to adsorb plant nutrients from it. A soil column study was undertaken in the laboratory with three contrasting soil types namely a sandy soil (Longlands, E horizon), an organic soil (Inanda, A horizon) and a clayey soil (Sepane, A horizon). The effluent was leached through the soil while distilled water was concurrently used as a control. Results indicated that after application of 16 pore volumes, leachates from the columns contained concentrations of Na, equal to that in the incoming effluent for all soils. The concentrations of Ca and Mg were lower in the leachates than in the original effluent indicating adsorption in the soils. Phosphorus was the element that was most strongly adsorbed in all soils. While its adsorption in the Ia could be attributed to organic matter and the presence of iron oxides and oxyhydroxides, the clay type and amount in the Sepane was likely to have been responsible for P adsorption. The NO₃-N, which was initially low in the effluent, increased as leaching progressed, while the NH₄-N decreased. In the water-leached columns, elements were leached out of soil because none were added with the water. At the end of leaching, columns were allowed to drain and then sectioned into 2 cm segments. The 0-2 cm, 8-10 cm and 14-16 cm segments representing the top, middle and bottom parts of the column were analysed for inorganic-N, phosphorus and potassium. The elemental content of the 0-2 cm segment was significantly higher (p<0.05) than the lower segments in all columns for soluble P in all soils. This reflects the immobile nature of P in soils and confirmed the high amounts of P retained by the soils. There were significant differences between the effluent and the water-leached soils in terms of P retention. The amount of inorganic-N and K in the top layer was not significantly different from the other layers. In the Ia 0–2 cm segment, a pH increase of about 1.3 pH units was recorded in the effluent-leached columns when compared to the equivalent segment in the water-leached columns. A glasshouse study was undertaken to assess the availability to maize of nutrients from the effluent. Maize was grown for 6 weeks in pots filled with the same soil types used in the columns study except that a similar sandy soil, Cartref (Cf, E horizon), replaced the Lo due to inadequate availability of the latter. Fertilizer (N, P and K) was applied at the full recommended rate, half the recommended rate and zero fertilizer for each of the three soils used. This corresponded to 0, 100, 200 kg N ha⁻¹ for all soils; 0, 40, 80 kg P ha⁻¹ and 0, 50, 100 kg K ha⁻¹ for the Cf; 0, 10, 20 kg P ha⁻¹ and 0, 102.5, 205 kg K ha⁻¹ for Ia; and 0, 30, 60 kg P ha⁻¹ and 0, 5, 10 kg K ha⁻¹ for Se. Lime was applied to the Ia soil at the rate of 10 t ha⁻¹. Plants were watered with either effluent or tap water. Dry matter yield and nutrient concentrations for effluent-irrigated maize were significantly higher (p<0.05) than for all equivalent fertilizer applications in the water-irrigated plants. The unfertilized effluent-irrigated plants were not significantly different from the fertilized water-irrigated plants, but performed as well as the water-irrigated plants at half fertilization irrespective of soil type. Phosphorus deficiency was observed in the Ia and Se soils but not in the Cf soil, irrespective of fertilizer treatment. Plants grown on the Cf soil irrigated with effluent and fully fertilized had the highest above-ground dry matter yield (4.9 g pot⁻¹) and accumulated the most nutrients namely N, P, K, Ca and Mg than all other treatments. After harvest the most marked changes had occurred in the Cf soil for P as the effluent-irrigated soils were significantly higher (p<0.05) than the water-irrigated soils reflecting the P input from the effluent. The effect of effluent on soil and plants was further investigated by planting maize on the Ia soil without lime application. Plants that received effluent irrigation and no lime had significantly higher (p<0.05) dry matter yields and accumulated more N, P and K than the water-irrigated with no lime as well as the equivalent limed treatments. This suggests an interaction effect between the lime and the effluent with its effects obvious on above-ground dry matter yield and plant N, P and Mg. A soil column experiment using the Cf, Ia and Se soils and planted with maize was conducted to assess the ability of plants to take up nutrients with concurrent leaching. Plants from the Cf soil recorded the lowest above-ground dry matter yield which was observed from the less vigorous growth as compared to plants in the Ia and Se soils. This growth pattern could also be explained by the low N accumulation in the plants from the Cf soil. Unlike N, P in plants grown on the Cf soil was significantly higher (p<0.05) than in the plants on the Ia and Se soils, despite having the least P gain from the effluent. The readily available P triggered both more uptake and also greater losses through leaching. The rate at which P was being supplied from the effluent was greater than its uptake by the plants and with limited capacity to hold onto P in this sandy soil there was inevitably loss though leaching. A pot experiment was conducted to investigate the interaction effects between lime and effluent. Lime type (calcium hydroxide or dolomite) was applied to two acidic top soils namely Inanda and Avalon at 0%, 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% of the recommended rates for these soils. Maize was planted and after 6 weeks it was harvested and evaluated for above-ground dry matter yields and plant nutrient concentrations. Non-significant effects were recorded for above-ground dry matter, N, P and K as a result of altering the liming rate and type within each soil. The effects of lime application were apparent in the soils after harvest as increasing the lime rate caused an increase in pH and an inverse relationship with the exchangeable acidity and acid saturation in soils, as expected. Although the unlimed treatments did not impact on the acidity as much as the limed treatments, effluent irrigation was shown to reduce soil acidity after harvest when compared to the soils at the beginning of the experiment. Phosphorus accumulation in plants was also unaffected by either lime rate or type which showed that effluent irrigation could influence P availability and further liming would not accrue benefits to the soil so as to influence plant P uptake. Based on these data, ABR effluent could be perceived as a resource rather than a waste product. It could conveniently be used for irrigation provided there is soil and plant monitoring to assess build-up of elements especially in the long term. Further investigations have to be carried out on other crop types both in the field and glasshouse to ascertain nutrient uptake and effect on different soil types. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2012.

Previous research in the Ouachita Mountains, Arkansas suggests that, on relatively thin soils overlying bedrock, individual trees locally thicken the regolith by root penetration into bedrock. However, that work was conducted mainly in areas of strongly dipping and contorted rock, where joints and bedding planes susceptible to root penetration are more common and accessible. This project extended this concept to the Cumberland Plateau, Kentucky, with flat, level-bedded sedimentary rocks. Spatial variability of soil thickness was quantified at three nested spatial scales, and statistical relationships with other potential influences of thickness were examined. In addition, soil depth beneath trees was compared to that of non-tree sites by measuring depth to bedrock of stumps and immediately adjacent sites. While soil thickness beneath stumps was greater in the Ouachita Mountains compared to the Kentucky sites, there were no statistically significant differences in the difference between stump and adjacent sites between the two regions. In both regions, however, soils beneath stumps are significantly deeper than adjacent soils. This suggests the local deepening effects of trees occur in flat-bedded as well as steeply dipping lithologies. Regression results at the Cumberland Plateau sites showed no statistically significant relationship between soil depth and geomorphic or stand-level ecological variables, consistent with a major role for individual tree effects. Nested analysis of variance between 10 ha stands, 1.0 ha plots, and 0.1 ha subplots indicates that about 67 percent of total depth variance occurs at, or below, the subplot level of organization. This highly localized variability is consistent with, and most plausibly explained by, individual tree effects. The effects of biomechanical weathering by trees are not limited to areas with strongly dipping and contorted bedrock. Variability of soil depth in the Cumberland Plateau is likely influenced by positive feedbacks from tree root growth, that these interactions occur over multiple generations of growth, and that the effects of trees are the dominant control of local soil thickness. Since lateral lithological variation was minimal, this study also provides evidence that the positive feedback from biomechanical weathering by trees leads to divergent development of soil thickness.

Arsenic (As), Chromium (Cr), and Copper (Cu) are ubiquitous in soils as a result of anthropogenic and geogenic processes. The fate of As, Cr, and Cu in the environment is largely governed by their speciation, which is influenced by soil physiochemical properties. This study investigated the influence of soil physiochemical properties and landscape position on As, Cr, and Cu concentration and speciation in soils adjacent to Chromated Copper Arsenate (CCA) treated lumber fence posts. Concentration gradients showed elevated total As and Cu adjacent to the three fence posts, which decreased with increasing distance from the posts. In addition, As and Cu had higher concentrations in the surface soil samples than the subsoil samples possibly due to enhanced weathering of the CCA treated posts at the surface. Concentrations of As, Cr, and Cu were similar among the Maury and Donerail silt loam, however, they were closer to the background concentration in the Newark silt loam, a partially hydric soil, indicating mobility of the metals. Extended X-ray Absorption Fine Structure (EXAFS) spectroscopy indicates As(V) is the predominate species which is principally coordinated with Fe and Al whereas, Cu(II) is coordinated with soil organic matter. Overall, the use of CCA treated lumber as a metal source can help determine how soil properties influence mobility and speciation of As, Cr, and Cu across the soil landscape.

In order to properly evaluate the ecological and human health risks of ZnO Manufactured nanomaterials (MNMs) released to the environment, it is critical to understand the likely transformation products in the wastewater treatment process and in soils receiving biosolids. To address this critical knowledge gap, we examined the transformation reactions of 30 nm ZnO MNMs in single component and multi-component systems, with phosphate and natural organic matter (NOM). We also assessed the influence of nano ZnO transformation on the bioavailability, and toxicity of ZnO transformation products to Triticum aestivum. The data revealed that ZnO MNMs react with phosphate at concentrations expected in wastewater and transform into two distinct morphological/structural phases. A micron scale crystalline zinc phosphate phase (hopeite), and a nano-sized phase that likely consists of a ZnO core with a Zn3(PO4)2 rich shell. Presence of NOM reduces particle aggregation and enhances stability, regardless of the sequence of ligands addition in the aging scenarios. The presence of phosphate and NOM also altered the bioavailability and reduced the toxicity of the ZnO MNMs to Triticum aestivum.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-05-17T16:51:40Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2015-10-16. Added 1 bitstream(s) on 2016-05-17T16:55:26Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 000864318.pdf: 1778351 bytes, checksum: c18b9b4c4498e84777dd50fb0d2d8b2c (MD5) / Para o entendimento do balanço de carbono no bioma da Mata Atlântica é prioritária a caracterização das emissões de gás carbônico (CO2) pelo solo, bem como sua correlação com as variáveis ambientais e as características químicas, físicas e biológicas do solo. O presente estudo teve como objetivo principal caracterizar as taxas de emissão de CO2 no solo, em duas áreas florestais, sobre Argissolo vermelho, dentro do domínio morfoclimático da Mata Atlântica, na Floresta Estadual Edmundo Navarro de Andrade (FEENA), situada no município de Rio Claro - SP. Acrescenta-se ainda a correlação dessas emissões com parâmetros atmosféricos e do solo: pressão, temperatura do ar e do solo, umidade do ar e do solo, condutividade térmica do solo, e a relação C/N, que permitiram a elaboração de um modelo estatístico de regressão linear múltipla para predição da respiração do solo nestas condições. A mensuração dos fluxos de CO2 foi realizada em duas áreas na FEENA localizadas no talhão 23, implantado no ano de 1916, e no talhão 15 reflorestado no ano de 2014. Para as medições foi utilizado um analisador de gás infravermelho (IRGA), modelo Li-840 da marca Li-Cor, acoplado a câmara dinâmica, por meio de bomba de circulação. Em cada área foi instalada uma parcela amostral de 900 m², e dentro delas foram instalados 17 pontos de medição. As emissões de CO2 na área recém reflorestada do talhão 15 variaram entre 0,51 e 2,59 mol CO2 m-2s-1 (média de 1,38 mol CO2 m-2s-1), apresentando correlação linear positiva com a condutividade térmica (r=0,56, p<0,0001), a relação C/N (r=0,28, p<0,05) e o com o horário da coleta (r=0, 33, p<0,05). Já no talhão 23, as emissões variaram de 0,61 a 3,86 mol CO2 m-2s-1 (média de 1,91 mol CO2 m-2s-1), apresentando correlação linear significativa com a umidade do solo (r=0,55, p<0,0001) e a do ar (r=0,28, p<0,05). Considerando as duas áreas mensuradas... / In order to improve the knowledge about the carbon balance in the Atlantic Forest biome, the characterization of soil carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions is a priority associated to its correlation with environmental variables, and the soil chemistry, physical and biological properties. This study aims to quantify the CO2 emission rates from the soil in two forested areas, stablished over Red Ultisol, located in the morphoclimatic domain of Atlantic Forest, in the municipality of Rio Claro-SP. The CO2 emission rates were correlated to atmospheric variables and physical and chemical parameters of the soil, such as air pressure, air and soil temperature and humidity, soil thermal conductivity, and the C/N ratio. Finally develop a statistical model of multiple linear regression for prediction of soil respiration under these conditions. The study area is located in a sustainable conservation area, the State Forest Edmundo Navarro de Andrade (FEENA). The measurement of CO2 emissions was performed using an infrared gas analyzer (IRGA), Li-840 model of Li-Cor brand, coupled to a dynamic chamber by means of a circulation pump, in two areas under different regeneration levels, located in FEENA: plot 23 was planted in 1916, and plot 15 planted in 2014. To measure the CO2 emissions a portion up to 900 m² were demarcated, and within each study area installed 17 measuring points. The soil CO2 emission in plot 15, during summer 2014, ranged from 0,51 mol CO2 m-2s-1 up 2,59 mol CO2 m-2s-1 (average 1.38 mol CO2 m-2s-1) with a significant positive linear correlation with the thermal conductivity (r=0.56, p<0.0001), the C/N ratio (r=0.28, p<0.05), and with the time (r=0.33, p<0.05). Plot 23 soil respiration range between 0.61 mol CO2 m-2s-1and 3.86 mol CO2 m-2s-1(average 1.91 mol CO2 m-2s-1), presenting a significant linear correlation with soil moisture (r=0.55, p<0.0001) and air humidity (r=0.28, p<0.05). The average emissions, considering...

Made available in DSpace on 2016-05-17T16:51:47Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2015-11-06. Added 1 bitstream(s) on 2016-05-17T16:55:38Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 000864666.pdf: 3383014 bytes, checksum: 36a0adcb2ab3fada813f47e2a4d4ee9c (MD5) / As características da sociedade se refletem diretamente no arranjo espacial da cidade, na forma como as pessoas habitam, trabalham e se deslocam em seu cotidiano. Na cidade moderna, produto da economia de mercado, é comum a tentativa de aglutinação da população segundo estratos econômicos, com as pessoas buscando a proximidade com seus assemelhados. Nesse contexto, atuam diferentes agentes sociais, cada um centrado principalmente em estratégias e práticas espaciais de valorização espacial, expandindo-se em todo o território, inclusive em Áreas de Preservação Permanente - APP. Em consonância com os objetivos propostos, buscou-se, inicialmente, na literatura, o aporte teórico para a temática a ser desenvolvida, bem como os procedimentos a serem adotados no tratamento dos dados estatísticos quantitativos apresentados em forma de mapas temáticos. Conceituaremos termos que julgamos necessários, os seus respectivos, entendimentos na analise dessa pesquisa. Nas considerações finais, apontamos uma análise teórica metodológica pertinente a um novo redirecionamento urbano, baseado em uma Geografia Critica de construção espacial para uma qualidade de vida em Teresina, onde prevaleça a construção e reconstrução do espaço e sua continua análise / Society's characteristics are reflected directly in the spatial arrangement of the city, in the way people live, work and travel in their daily lives. In the modern city, a product of the market economy, it is common to attempt to agglutination of the population according to economic strata, with people seeking proximity to their counterparts. Where different actors, each centered mainly on spatial strategies and practices of spatial enhancement, however, expanding throughout the country, including in Permanent Preservation Areas - APP. In line with the goals we sought initially in the literature, the theoretical basis for the theme to be developed, and the procedures to be adopted in the treatment of quantitative statistical data presented in the form of thematic maps. We conceptualize terms which we believe are necessary, their respective, understandings in the analysis of this research. In the final considerations, we point out a methodological theoretical analysis relevant to a new urban redirection based on a Critical Geography spatial construction for a quality of life in Teresina. Where prevails the construction and reconstruction of space and continues its analysis

Made available in DSpace on 2015-03-26T13:23:55Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 texto completo.pdf: 1952943 bytes, checksum: 5eb0995a9fbd8af8c5b57d51351a7cb1 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014-07-25 / Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / The mechanization makes agricultural work less strenuous, more homogeneous farming and increases crop productivity. The system of mechanized tillage directly influence the physical and biological soil properties, in addition to providing appropriate environment for establishment of cultures. Some studies have reported the microbial activity in the soil of the same quality. Microbial activity can be measured by the microbial biomass carbon, soil basal respiration, metabolic quotient and microbial quotient, among others. Tillage can affect the microbial activity because the levels of soil organic carbon can be changed as well as the density, temperature and soil moisture. Several studies using microbiological analyzes for determination of disturbances in agricultural and forestry crops, but the quantification of the interference of tillage, in an isolated form in soil microbial activity is rarely studied. Knowing how much and how tillage impacts on soil microbiota, one can analyze the effects of this process, and seek to mitigate noxious factors, seeking managements best suited to each type of soil and crop systems to be implemented. Thus objective with this study was to evaluate how different systems of mechanized tillage can affect their microbiological activity, evaluating the total organic carbon, microbial biomass carbon, basal soil respiration, metabolic quotient and the quotient soil microbial. The experiment was conducted in an experimental area belongs to the Federal University of Viçosa, was used as treatments for the following types of tillage: No tillage (PD) and conventional tillage (PC) and minimum tillage (CM). The treatments were arranged in a randomized block. The experiment was disposed in a split plot sub subdivided, where the parcels types of tillage systems, subplots depths and in the sub split plots sampling periods in randomized block design with 4 replications causualizados. Data were analyzed by analysis of variance and means were compared using the Tukey test, adopting the 5% level of probability. All analyzes were performed with the aid of SAEG. Microbiological analyzes were conducted at the Laboratory of Organic Matter in Soil, Federal University of Viçosa department. The collections were made in triplicate in two depths, the bands from 0 to 0,10 m from 0,10 to 0,20 m depth. We determined the total organic carbon (COT), microbial biomass carbon (CBM), basal soil respiration (RBS), metabolic quotient (qCO2) and microbial quotient (qMic). The no tillage showed higher levels of microbial biomass carbon and soil basal respiration, in the range 0 0,10 m depth. The values of metabolic quotient were higher in minimum tillage system. The no till was the system that had higher microbial activity in the soil. / A mecanização torna o trabalho agrícola menos árduo, a lavoura mais homogênea e aumenta a produtividade das culturas. O sistema de preparo mecanizado do solo influencia diretamente as propriedades físicas e biológicas do solo, além de propiciar ambiente adequado para estabelecimento das culturas. Alguns estudos relacionam à atividade microbiológica do solo a qualidade do mesmo. A atividade microbiológica pode ser mensurada através do carbono da biomassa microbiano, respiração basal do solo, quociente metabólico e quociente microbiano. O preparo do solo pode interferir na atividade microbiológica, pois os teores de carbono orgânico do solo podem ser alterados assim como a densidade do solo, a temperatura e a umidade do solo. Vários estudos utilizam as análises microbiológicas para determinações de perturbações em culturas agrícolas e florestais, mas a quantificação da interferência do preparo do solo, de forma isolada na atividade microbiana do solo é pouco estudada. Conhecendo-se quanto e como o preparo do solo impacta a microbiota do solo, pode-se analisar os efeitos deste processo, e procurar mitigar fatores nocivos, buscando sistemas de manejos mais adequados a cada tipo de solo e da cultura a ser implementada. Dessa forma objetivou-se com o presente trabalho avaliar como os diferentes sistemas de preparo mecanizado do solo podem afetar a sua atividade microbiológica, avaliando o carbono orgânico total, o carbono da biomassa microbiana, a respiração basal do solo, o quociente metabólico e o quociente microbiano do solo. O experimento foi realizado numa área experimental pertencente à Universidade Federal de Viçosa. Utilizaram-se como tratamentos os seguintes tipos de preparo do solo: plantio direto (PD), Plantio convencional (PC) e cultivo mínimo (CM). O experimento foi disposto em um esquema de parcelas sub subdivididas, tendo nas parcelas os tipos de preparos do solo, nas subparcelas as profundidades e nas sub subparcelas as épocas de amostragem, no delineamento de blocos causualizados com 4 repetições. Os dados foram analisados empregando-se a analise de variância e as médias comparadas utilizando-se o teste Tukey adotando o nível de 5% de probabilidade. Todas as análises foram realizadas com o auxilio do SAEG. As análises microbiológicas foram realizadas no Laboratório de Matéria Orgânica, do departamento de solos da Universidade Federal de Viçosa. As coletas foram realizadas em triplicata, em duas profundidades, nas faixas de 0,0 a 0,10 m e de 0,10 a 0,20 m de profundidade. Foram determinadas o Carbono orgânico total (COT), Carbono da biomassa microbiana (CBM), Respiração basal do solo (RBS), quociente metabólico (qCO2) e quociente microbiano (qMic). O plantio direto apresentou maiores índices de carbono da biomassa microbiana e respiração basal do solo, na faixa de 0,0 - 0,10 m de profundidade. Os valores do quociente metabólico foram maiores no sistema de cultivo mínimo. O plantio direto foi o sistema que apresentou maior atividade microbiológica do solo.

Submitted by RINGO BENJAMIM VICTOR null (ribeviva@gmail.com) on 2018-01-28T13:57:13Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Tese_Ringo_Biblioteca_UNESP.pdf: 8660357 bytes, checksum: 88b358970243c0069466d7c737200f7e (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Ana Paula Santulo Custódio de Medeiros null (asantulo@rc.unesp.br) on 2018-01-29T19:47:22Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 victor_rb_dr_rcla.pdf: 7468403 bytes, checksum: 11c7a5824b3d781b72ef224003f0a55c (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-01-29T19:47:22Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 victor_rb_dr_rcla.pdf: 7468403 bytes, checksum: 11c7a5824b3d781b72ef224003f0a55c (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-12-14 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / O trabalho objetivou realizar o Levantamento Pedológico e Avaliação da Aptidão Agrícola de Terras da Bacia Hidrográfica do Rio Maue no Distrito de Angónia em Moçambique, numa área com 4.592,56 ha de cobertura. Para além de uso de técnicas de geoprocessamento, efetuou-se o levantamento de solos em campo, sua descrição morfológica e análises físico-químicas para fins de fertilidade agrícola. De posse dos resultados analíticos, os solos foram classificados à luz da FAO-WRB (2014), identificando-se assim, 10 classes de solos: Vertisol Gleic Eutric; Plinthosol Pisolithic Eutic; Acrisol Eutric Sodic; Cambisol Eutric Haplic1; Ferralsol Sodic Yellow; Gleysol Eutric Haplic; Solonetz Eutric Duric; Cambisol Eutric Haplic2; Solonetz Sodic Eutric; e Ferralsol Yellow-Red Eutric. Os resultados da pesquisa evidenciam que 20% dos solos da bacia são de elevada fertilidade natural (eutróficos), correspondendo à classes de Ferralsol Yellow-Red Eutric e Cambisol Eutric Haplic1. Por sua vez, 80% dos solos, apesar de eutróficos, possuem baixa fertilidade natural, pois, apresentam-se com problemas de sodicidade, o que representa limitação ao desenvolvimento das culturas. Fisicamente, os solos se apresentam com restrições (coesão, adensamento, cimentação de horizontes e endopedregosidade) para as classes de Cambisols e Solonetz. Apesar disso, se prestam à lavoura, mas quando submetidos a correções e manejos visando à melhoria de sua estrutura e fertilidade. A partir da avaliação da aptidão agrícola de terras identificou 5 classes: 1ABC, que compreende terras pertencentes às classes de aptidão boa para lavouras nos níveis de manejo A, B e C (40,41%); 5SN- corresponde a terras pertencentes à classe de aptidão boa para silvicultura e pastagem natural (24,05%); 4P- terras pertencentes à classe de aptidão boa para pastagem plantada (15,62%); 1(a)BC - terras pertencentes à classe de aptidão boa para a lavoura nos níveis de manejo B e C, e restrita ao nível A (10,23%) e, por último, a classe 6- terras sem aptidão para o uso agrícola (9,69%) da área total. Esta última destina-se a preservação da flora e fauna. Ainda assim, em termos percentuais não reduzem significativamente as terras agricultáveis a região, pois esta se apresenta com considerável potencial de uso, haja vista que 90,31% da cobertura total da área correspondem a áreas aptas para a lavoura. Apesar disso, observa-se que a forma de exploração dos solos em Maue ameaça sua conservação a médio e longo prazo, em virtude da sodicidade destes resultante do uso de adubos e fertilizantes químicos por parte da população, conduzindo, portanto, a salinização dos solos e seus impactos a nível socio-ecológico. Portanto, há profunda necessidade de reverter à situação em prol da sustentabilidade ambiental, caso contrário fará com que se hipotequem as necessidades das futuras gerações pelas relações entre o Homem, solo e a agrobiodiversidade que sustêm a vida daquelas comunidades conduzindo, eventualmente, a erosão, à redução e perda de produtividade dos solos, a fome, pobreza e miséria em lugar do bem-estar de que se desejam. / The objective of this work was to carry out a soil survey and evaluation of the agricultural suitability of the Maue River Basin in the District of Angónia in Mozambique, with 4,592.56 ha. In addition to the use of geoprocessing techniques, soil survey in the field, its morphological description and physical-chemical analyzes were carried out for agricultural fertility purposes. Based on the analytical results, the soils were classified according with to FAO-WRB (2014), thus identifying 10 classes of soils: Vertisol Gleic Eutric; Plinthosol Pisolithic Eutric; Acrisols Eutric Sodic; Cambisol Eutric Haplic1; Ferralsol Sodic Yellow; Gleysol Eutric Haplic; Solonetz Eutric duric; Cambisol Eutric Haplic2; Solonetz Sodic Eutric; and Ferralsol Yellow-Red Eutric. The results of the research show that 20% of the soils of the basin are of high natural fertility (eutrophic), corresponding to the classes of Ferralsol Yellow-Red and Cambisol Eutric Haplic 1. On the other hand, 80% of the soils, although eutrophic, have low natural fertility, therefore, they are faced with problems of sodicity, what represents limitation to the development of the cultures. Physically, the soils present themselves with restrictions (cohesion, densification, cementing of horizons and endopedregosidade) for the classes of Cambisols and Solonetz. Despite this, they lend themselves to farming, but when submitted to corrections and maneuvers aiming at the improvement of its structure and fertility. The appraisal of agricultural landability identified 5 classes: 1ABC, which comprises lands belonging to the good fitness classes for crops at management levels A, B and C (40.41%); 5SN- corresponds to lands belonging to the good fitness class for forestry and natural pasture (24.05%); 4P - lands belonging to good fitness class for planted pasture (15.62%); 1 (a) BC - lands belonging to the good farming class at management levels B and C, restricted to level A (10.23%) and, lastly, class 6 land not suitable for use (9.69%) of the total area. The latter is intended for the preservation of flora and fauna. Nevertheless, in percentage terms they do not significantly reduce the arable land in the region, since it presents considerable potential for use, since 90.31% of the total area coverage corresponds to areas suitable for farming. Despite this, it is observed that the way of exploitation of the soils in Maue threatens its conservation in the medium and long term, due to the sodicity of these resulting from the use of fertilizers and chemical fertilizers by the population, leading, therefore, the salinization of the soils and their socio-ecological impacts. Therefore, there is a deep need to revert to the situation in favor of environmental sustainability, otherwise it will cause the future generations' needs to be mortgaged by the relationships between man, soil and agrobiodiversity that sustain the lives of those communities, eventually leading to erosion, to the reduction and loss of soil productivity, hunger, poverty and misery rather than the desired welfare. / CAPES: 9086-14-5