Thesis (MSc (Microbiology))--Stellenbosch University, 2008. / Penicillium is a well‐known cosmopolitan genus with more than 225 accepted species. Species from this diverse genus, in general, are considered to primarily be soil fungi, with decomposition as its main function. Therefore, together with its ubiquitous nature, these species are of great importance in ecosystems, agriculture and biotechnology. However, in South Africa, very little research has been done on this complex genus, as species identification were often found to be problematic, even for experienced taxonomists. This lead to a number of South African studies only mentioning that a Penicillium spp. were isolated, without making any attempt of showing the extent of diversity within the genus from the unique habitats. The present study set out to explore the extent of the species diversity in Penicillium isolated from the Cape Floristic Region, specifically focusing on coastal fynbos soil. Soil samples were collected from this region, at sites situated outside Malmesbury. Four hundred and thirty four Penicillium strains were isolated from soil‐dilutions. The strains were characterized using morphological characters and subsequently placed into 24 morphological groups. There were, also, more or less 40 strains that could not be grouped with any other isolates. Groupings were made according to conidiophore branching patterns which divided the strains into their respective subgenera. Eight species from subgenus Aspergilloides, seven from subgenus Furcatum, eight from subgenus Biverticillium and one from subgenus Penicillium were isolated. The species were further characterized in subsequent chapters. In the second chapter of this thesis, one of the taxonomic groups in subgenus Biverticillium, isolated from coastal fynbos soil, Protea infructescences and on moth‐damaged Riesling grapes in Canada, was examined. This species was characterized using morphology and were found to have several unique characters, such as the very short synnema produced after prolonged incubation. These characters did not conform to descriptions of previously described species. Its novelty was confirmed by an ITS phylogeny and the strains were subsequently described as Penicillium ramulosum prov. nom. with P. cecidicola and P. dendriticumas its sister taxa. In chapter three, a further seven groups belonging to Penicillium subgenus Biverticillium were characterized. These strains were identified as P. minioluteum, P. verruculosum and P. rugulosum‐like, respectively. Four of the groups showed unique morphological characters, with the ITS phylogeny resolving the fynbos strains separate from all previously described species. The strains were, therefore, considered to be new to science and described as P. solicola prov. nom., P. ptychoconidium prov. nom., P. occultum prov. nom. and P. chloroloma prov. nom., respectively. A key to species from subgenus Biverticilliumcluded. is also inPenicillium subgenus Furcatum was the subject of the fourth chapter of this thesis. Our survey found that although the species diversity in this group was not as high as for the other subgenera, it was the group most often isolated in this study. Species were identified as P. janczewskii, P. canescens, P. melinii, P. corylophilum and P. citrinum using morphological characters. One species belonging to subgenus Penicillium, P. expansum, was also isolated and compared to species recorded during a previous survey. Amongst the identified species, were two groups that could not be identified using published keys, with their novelty confirmed by an ITS phylogeny. They are, therefore, described here as P. subturcoseum prov. nom. and P. hemitrachum prov. nom. A key to species in this subgenus is also provided. In Chapter 5 the presence of Penicillium subgenus Aspergilloides, which is characterized by monoverticillate conidiophores, were investigated. Species were identified as P. roseopurpureum, P. restrictum, P. hirayamae and P. toxicarium. Amongst the identified species, were four groups that did not conform to previously described species and are described here as P. brachycaulon prov. nom., P. malacosphaerula prov. nom., P. cumulacinatum prov. nom. and P. vulgaris prov. nom., respectively. The newly described species have been included in a key, together with closely related species and the other species of subgenus Aspergilloides from the fynbos soil. Species identifications in Penicillium is often problematic and South African taxonomists have often not attempt to identify strains down to species level. During this study, Penicillium was found to be well represented in the soil, with a large proportion being previously undescribed. For this reason, a dichotomous and synoptic key to species isolated during this study are provided in the final chapter. This study should thus serve as a basis for further explorations into the diversity and ecological role of this group of organisms in this ecologically mportant biome.

Thesis (MSc (Microbiology))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The relationship between various land management practices, soil properties and the soil microbial communities are complex and little is known about the effect of these interactions on plant productivity in agricultural systems. Although it would be advantageous to have a single organism or property that can be used as a measure of soil health, it may not be possible. Soil organisms which include both the microorganisms as well as soil fauna are subjected to the effect of their immediate environment. This microenvironment in turn is determined by the soil properties as well as above ground flora and their interactions. Most soil indicators interact with each other, and these interactions can modify or influence the soil properties. The complexities of the interactions between critical soil indicator values often preclude its practical use by land managers and policy makers. However, soil microbial communities (e.g. diversity and structural stability) may serve as a relative indicator of soil quality. These communities are sensitive to land management practices and changes in the microenvironment. The objective of this study was to gain an understanding of the complex relationships by investigating the effect of conventional, integrated and organic apple production systems on the physical, chemical and biological (particularly soil microbial diversity) properties of the soil. Automated Ribosomal Intergenic spacer analysis (ARISA) was used to characterise fungal (F-ARISA) and bacterial (B-ARISA) communities from soil samples obtained from an experimental apple orchard in Elgin, Grabouw. The intergenic spacer (ITS) region from the fungal rRNA operon was amplified using ITS4 and fluorescently FAM (6- carboxylfluorescein) labelled ITS5 primers. Similarly, the 16S-23S intergenic spacer region from the bacterial rRNA operon was amplified using ITSR and FAM-labelled ITSF primers. The sensitivity of the technique allowed us to discriminate between the soil microbial communities of the different treatments. From our results we observed significant increase (p < 0.05) in the fungal community diversity between the February and April samples, while the bacterial community diversity was consistent (p > 0.05). Also, treatments with mulch showed a significantly higher microbial diversity than the other treatments at a 5 % significance level. Fungal communities showed significant correlation with the potassium concentration in the soil, while bacterial communities depicted a significant correlation with the soil phosphorous concentration. Based on the results we concluded that different management practices have a significant effect on the soil microbial communities and that these communities are particularly sensitive to small changes in the environment. However, there is still a need to determine what the composition of the soil microbial communities are to be able to correlate our observations with soil health. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die verhouding tussen verskillende landboubestuurspraktyke, grondeienskappe en die mikrobiese gemeenskappe in grond is kompleks en weinig is bekend oor die uitwerking van hierdie interaksies op die produktiwiteit van landboustelsels. Alhoewel dit voordelig sou wees om ‘n enkele organisme of eienskap te kan hê wat die gesondheid van grond kan meet, sal dit dalk nie moontlik wees nie. Grondorganismes wat die mikroörganismes sowel as die grondfauna insluit, is onderworpe aan die invloed van hulle onmiddelike omgewings. Hierdie mikro-omgewings op hulle beurt word weer beïnvloed deur die grondeienskappe sowel as die die oppervlak flora en hulle wisselwerkinge. Meeste van die grondaanwysers toon ook wisselwerkinge met mekaar, en hierdie wisselwerkinge kan die grondeienskappe beïnvloed or selfs verander. Die kompleksiteit van die wisselwerkinge tussen kritiese grond aanwysers is meestal die rede waarom dit nie deur grondbestuurders en beleidsmakers gebruik word nie. Dit is ongeag die feit dat grond mikrobiese gemeenskappe (bv. diversiteit en stukturele stabiliteit) mag dien as ‘n relatiewe aanwyser van grondkwaliteit. Hierdie gemeenskappe is sensitief vir bestuurspraktyke en veranderinge in die mikro-omgewing. Die doel van die studie was om die ingewikkelde verhoudings in die grondgemeenskappe te bestudeer en die uitwerking van konventionele, geïntegreerde en organiese appel produksie sisteme op die fisiese, chemiese en biologiese eienskappe (veral die grond mikrobiologiese diversiteit) te bepaal. Geoutomatiseerde Ribosomale Intergeniese Spasie Analise (ARISA) is gebruik om die fungus (F-ARISA) en bakteriese (B-ARISA) gemeenskappe van grondmonsters wat vanaf ‘n proef appelboord in Elgin (Grabouw) verkry is, te bepaal. Die intergeenspasie (ITS) area van die fungus rDNA operon is vermeerder deur die ITS4 en fluoresserende FAM (6-karboxylfluorescein) gemerkte ITS5 inleiers te gebruik. Soortgelyk is die 16S-23S intergeenspasie area van die bakteriese rDNA operon vermeerder deur ITSR en FAM-gemerkte ITSF inleiers te gebruik. Die sensitiwiteit van die tegniek laat ons toe om te onderskei tussen die grond mikrobiese gemeenskappe vanaf verskillende grondbehandelings. Vanuit die resultate kon ons aflei dat daar ‘n toename (p < 0.05) in die fungus gemeenskap diversiteit vanaf Februarie to April was terwyl die bakteriese gemeenskap ‘n konstante diversteit getoon het (p > 0.05). Behandelings met grondbedekking het ook ‘n beduidend hoër mikrobiese diversiteit getoon as ander behandelings. Fungus gemeenskappe het beduidende korrelasies getoon met kalium konsentrasies in die grond, terwyl bakteriese gemeenskappe ‘n beduidende korrelasie getoon het met grond fosfor konsentrasies. Gebaseer op die resultate kon ons aflei dat verskillende bestuurspraktyke ‘n uitwerking kan hê op die grond mikrobiese gemeenskappe en dat hierdie gemeenskappe sensitief is vir klein veranderinge in die omgewing. Dit sal egter nog nodig wees om die spesifieke samestelling van die grond mikrobiese gemeenskappe te bepaal voor ons hierdie waarnemings kan korreleer met grondgesondheid.

Thesis (MSc)--University of Stellenbosch, 2001. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Mucoralean fungi are mostly saprotrophs that are frequently encountered in soil habitats. Using an isolation temperature of circa 25°C, other workers obtained these fungi from a wide diversity of geographical areas in southern Africa. However, it is known that psychrotolerant mucoralean fungi, able to grow at 25°C as well as at 5°C, occur in pristine Alti Mountain Grassland. Nothing is known about the diversity of these psychrotolerant soil fungi in other vegetation types of South Africa. Consequently, in this study, the psychrotolerant fungal taxa and numbers in soil from a vineyard and from pristine Mountain Fynbos were determined using an incubation temperature of 4°C and a complex isolation medium. The latter contained agar, malt extract, peptone, yeast extract, penicillin and streptomycin sulphate. Soil samples were analysed in late summer, autumn and mid-winter. It was found that, for the samples taken in late summer and autumn, the diversity of mucoralean species in the soil differed between fynbos and vineyard. In winter however, no significant difference was detected between the Shannon's diversity indices of mucoralean species in the soil samples taken from the two habitats. It was found that in both soil types, the percentage mucoralean fungi on the plates increased from summer to winter. In addition, the numbers of detectable Morlierella subgenus Morlierella on the plates were higher in winter than in late summer. The diversity of mucoralean species obtained during winter in fynbos and vineyard soil was significantly less than the diversity of these species in Alti Mountain Grassland soil. To determine if the Morlierella subgenus Morlierella isolates from the fynbos and vineyard soil, and those obtained from Alti Mountain Grassland, differ in the ability to grow at low temperatures, the radial growth rate on malt extract agar at 4°C and BOC was determined for each isolate. The results indicate that not only did seasonal changes occur in the taxa within Morlierella subgenus Morlierella, but that the isolates dominating the soil in different seasons also differed in the ability to grow at low temperatures. The percentage of isolates that had reached greater colony diameters after B days of incubation at 4°C, was higher for the isolates obtained in the cold wet month of July than for those obtained in the warmer dryer month of February. Similar results were obtained with the radial growth experiments conducted at BOC. The Morlierella subgenus Morlierella isolates obtained in winter from fynbos and vineyard soil showed less variation in low temperature growth rate than the isolates of this taxon obtained in winter from Alti Mountain Grassland soil during a previous study. This variation corresponds to the greater number (20) of Morlierella subgenus Morlierella species found in the grassland soil. Altogether only seven species of this subgenus was detected during the present study in the fynbos and vineyard soil samples. It was speculated that this difference in diversity between the fynbos and vineyard isolates, and the grassland isolates obtained in a previous study, might have been as a result of differences in the habitat or the enumeration methods used. The phylogenetic relationship between different psychrotolerant isolates of Morlierella subgenus Morlierella originating from the soil of the fynbos, vineyard and Alti Mountain Grassland, was subsequently determine through comparison of ITS regions, within ribosomal RNA repeats. Consequently, 45 psychrotolerant Morlierella subgenus Morlierella isolates originating from the three soil habitats was compared on the basis ITS 1 nucleotide sequence composition and radial growth rate at 4°C. Phylogenetic analyses showed that the isolates could be grouped into two clusters correlating with the ability to grow at low temperatures. Each cluster was further subdivided into two subgroups. It was found that except for one subgroup and the reference strain occurring in another subgroup, all the subgroups contain isolates originating from a single soil habitat. Therefore, the ITS 1 sequence of these fungi seems to indicate the original habitat and ability to grow at low temperatures. This correlation of the ITS sequence with the ecological habitat of a fungus has also been observed by other workers for other fungal groups. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Mucoraliese fungi is meestal saprotrofe wat dikwels in grondhabitatte aangetref word. Deur gebruik te maak van 'n isolasietemperatuur van circa 25°C, het ander werkers dié fungi van 'n wye verskeidenheid geografiese gebiede in suidelike Afrika verkry. Dit is egter bekend dat die psigrotolerante mucoraliese fungi, wat in staat is om by 2SoC en ook by SaC te groei, in ongeskonde Alti Berg-Grasland voorkom. Niks is egter bekend oor die diversiteit van dié psigrotolerante grondfungi in ander veldtipes van suidelike Afrika nie. Die psigrotolerante fungustaksa en -getalle in grond van 'n wingerd en van ongeskonde Berg Fynbos is gevolglik in dié studie bepaal deur gebruik te maak van 'n inkubasietemperatuur van 4"C en 'n komplekse isolasiemedium. Laasgenoemde het agar, moutekstrak, peptoon, gisekstrak, penisillien en streptomisiensulfaat bevat. Grondmonsters is in die laatsomer, herfs en midwinter geanaliseer. Daar is 'n verskil gevind tussen die diversiteit van die mucoraliese spesies in die grond van fynbos en dié van wingerd in die monsters wat in die laatsomer en midwinter geneem is. In die winter is daar egter geen beduidende verskil gevind tussen die Shannon diversiteitsindekse van mucoraliese spesies in die grondmonsters wat uit die twee habitatte getrek is nie. In albei grondtipes is daar gevind dat die persentasie mucoraliese fungi op die plate toegeneem het van somer tot winter. Daarby was die aantal waarneembare Morlierella subgenus Morlierella op die plate meer in die winter as in die laatsomer. Die diversiteit van mucoraliese spesies wat in die winter uit fynbos- en wingerdgrond verkry is, was beduidend minder as die diversiteit van dié spesies in Alti Berg-Grasland grond. Om te bepaal of die Morlierella subgenus Morlierella isolate van die fynbos- en wingerdgrond en dié van Alti Berg-Grasland van mekaar verskil ten opsigte van hul vermoë om by lae temperature te groei, is die radiale groeitempo op moutekstrak by 4"C en aoc vir elke isolaat bepaal. Die resultate dui aan dat daar nie alleen seisoenale veranderinge in die taksa binne Morlierella subgenus Morlierella voorkom nie, maar dat die isolate wat tydens verskillende seisoene uit die grond verkry is, ook ten opsigte van hul groeivermoë by lae temperature van mekaar verskil. Die persentasie isolate wat groter kolonie diameters bereik het ná B dae inkubasie by 4°C, was hoër vir die isolate van die koue, nat Juliemaand as vir dié wat in die warmer en droër Februariemaand verkry is. Soortgelyke resultate is verkry met radiale groei-eksperimente wat by BOC gedoen is. Die MortierelIa subgenus MortierelIa isolate wat in die winter uit fynbos- en wingerdgrond verkry is, het In kleiner variasie in hul groeitempo by lae temperature getoon as die isolate in dié takson wat tydens 'n vorige studie in die winter uit Alti Berg-Grasland grond verkry is. Dié variasie stem ooreen met die groter aantal (20) MortierelIa subgenus MortierelIa spesies wat in die graslandgrond gevind is. Slegs sewe spesies van dié subgenus is gedurende die huidige studie in die fynbos- en wingerdgrondmonsters waargeneem. Daar is gespekuleer dat dié verskil in diversiteit tussen die fynbos- en wingerdisolate en die graslandisolate van die vorige studie die gevolg mag wees van verskille tussen die habitat of die enumerasiemetodes wat gebruik is. Die filogenetiese verwantskap tussen verskillende psigrotolerante isolate van MortierelIa subgenus MortierelIa uit die grond van die fynbos, wingerd en Alti Berg-Grasland, is vervolgens bepaal deur 'n vergelyking van interne getranskribeerde spasieerder (ITS) areas, binne ribosomale RNS herhalings. Daar is gevolglik 45 psigrotolerante MortierelIa subgenus MortierelIa isolate uit die drie grondhabitatte met mekaar vergelyk op grond van die basis ITS 1 nukleotied opeenvolgingsamestelling en radiale groeitempo by 4°C. Filogenetiese analises het die isolate in twee groepe verdeel op grond van hul vermoë om by lae temperature te groei. Elke groep is verder in twee subgroepe verdeel. Daar is gevind dat behalwe vir een subgroep en die verwysingstam wat in 'n ander subgroep voorgekom het, elkeen van die subgroepe bestaan het uit isolate wat van 'n enkele grond habitat verkry is. Dit wil dus voorkom of die ITS 1 opeenvolging van dié fungi 'n aanduiding gee van die oorspronklike habitat en die vermoë om by lae temperature te groei. Dié korrelasie tussen die ITS opeenvolging en die ekologiese habitat van 'n fungus is ook deur ander werkers vir ander fungusgroepe waargeneem.

Thesis (PhD (Botany and Zoology))—University of Stellenbosch, 2009. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Metal pollution is a problem of increasing global concern. It could arise from industrial activities, as well as pesticide use in agriculture, among other sources. For adequate protection of the soil ecosystem from metal toxicity, the bioavailability of metals must be properly evaluated. A plethora of soil factors affect the bioavailability of metals to soil organisms. These include pH, clay and organic matter contents, salinity among others. While much is known about the influence of some of these parameters, little is known on how clay content and salinity modify the bioavailability of metals to soil organisms. This study investigated the influence of clay content and salinity on partitioning, uptake and toxicity of two essential metals (Cu and Zn) to the earthworm Eisenia fetida in separate laboratory trials. Partitioning of the metals was evaluated with 0.01 M CaCl2, DTPA (di-ethylene-triamine-penta acetic acid), and nitric acid extractions. The metal content of worms was determined by acid digestion, while growth, cocoon production, and mortality were used as endpoints showing toxicity to metals and/or salinity. To test the validity of some of the laboratory results, a field study was undertaken, using the earthworm Aporrectodea caliginosa. Further, the study assessed the effect of salinity, using a battery of laboratory tests (acute, chronic and avoidance tests) with natural and/or artificial soils on four species of organisms (a collembolan Folsomia candida, a potworm Enchytraeus doerjesi and two earthworm species E. fetida and A. caliginosa), representing different feeding patterns and ecological roles in soil. Results showed that with increased clay content, there was increased availability of Cu in the substrate, and increased toxicity to E. fetida as shown by data for mortality and growth. The situation with Zn was less significant at sub-lethal concentrations but much so at lethal concentrations. DTPA and CaCl2 extracted metals revealed changes in partitioning of Cu and Zn with changes in clay content, but this trend was not always consistent. Both DTPA and CaCl2 revealed increased availability of Zn in substrates with increased salinity. Salinity had an additive to synergistic effect with Zn in toxicity to E. fetida. When combined with Cu, salinity also increased the availability of Cu as shown by CaCl2 extracted fraction, and had additive effect on toxicity of Cu to the earthworm. The field study did not succeed in in iv confirming the results of the laboratory study due to confounding role of flooding after heavy rainfall and subsequent leaching of salts and Cu. The results of the experiment on acute and chronic toxicity tests for NaCl on E. fetida showed LC50 of 5436 mg/kg NaCl and EC50 for growth and cocoon production of 4985 and 2020 mg/kg NaCl. These values showed that earthworms might be negatively affected in many soils containing fairly moderate concentrations of salts. Similarly, A. caliginosa could not survive in natural soil containing relatively low salt concentrations (EC = 1.62 dS/m) while reproduction was severely affected at lower EC value of 0.52 dS/m. F. candida and E. doerjesi could survive in the highest salinity soil (EC = 1.62 dS/m) used in this study but their reproduction was severely affected from 1.03 dS/m. Overall, it appears that of all the taxa used, earthworm species were the most sensitive to saline stress and could proof useful in determining ‘safe levels’ of salt in contaminated soils. The results of the avoidance test showed that A. caliginosa avoided both natural and artificial saline soil containing concentrations lower than those avoided by E. fetida. The conclusion is that the influence of clay content and salinity on the bioavailability of Cu and Zn depends largely on the metal in question, but generally speaking, bioavailability and toxicity of the metals were reduced with increased clay content while the opposite was true for salinity. If the species used in this study can be seen as fairly representative of a wide range of soil organisms, the conclusion is that salinisation of soil will be detrimental to most soil organisms at relatively low saline concentrations. Given the role of beneficial soil organisms in several soil processes which in turn contribute to soil fertility and sustainable use of land, it is recommended that any farming practices that may lead to an increase in salt content of agricultural soils should be discouraged. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Metaalbesoedeling is ‘n probleem wat toenemende globale kommer veroorsaak. Dit kan ontstaan as gevolg van industriële aktiwiteite sowel as van plaagmiddelgebruik in die landbou en ander bronne.Ten einde die grondekostelsel genoegsaam te beskerm, moet die biobeskikbaarheid van metale ge-evalueer word. ‘n Verskeidenheid van grondfaktore be-invloed die biobeskikbaarheid van metale vir grondorganismes Hulle sluit onder andere in pH, klei, organiese inhoud en soutgehalte. Hoewel heelwat bekend is oor die rol van sommige van hierdie parameters, is min bekend oor hoe klei en soutgehalte die biobeskikbaarheid van metale vir grondorganismes kan modifieer. Hierdie studie het die invloed van kleiinhoud and soutgehalte op die verdeling/partisie, opname en toksisiteit van twee essensiële metale (Cu en Zn) vir die erdwurm Eisenia fetida in afsonderlike laboratoriumproewe ondersoek. Kompartementele verdeling van die metale is geevalueer deur middel van ekstraksie-metodes met 0.01 M CaCl2, DTPA (di-etileentriamien- penta asysnsuur), en salpertersuur ekstraksies. Die metaalinhoud van wurms is bepaal deur suurverterings en spektrofotometriese analises te doen terwyl groei, kokonproduksie en mortaliteit van organismes gebruik is as gevoeligheidseindpunte om toksisiteit van metale en soutgehalte aan te toon. Om die geldigheid van somige van die laboratoriumresultate te toets, is ‘n veldstudie ook onderneem met die erdwurm Aporrectodea caliginosa. Die effek van soutgehalte is verder ondersoek deur ‘n battery van laboratoriumtoetse met vier spesies (‘n kollembool Folsomia candida,’n potwurm Enchytraeus doerjesi en twee erdwurmspesies E. fetida en A. caliginosa), wat verskillende voedingspatrone verteenwoordig. Die resultate het getoon dat met toenmende klei-inhoud was daar ‘n toename in die beskikbaarheid van Cu vir opname vanuit die substraat, asook ‘n toename in toksisiteit vir E. fetida soos deur die gegewens vir mortaliteit en groei uitgewys. Die situasie met Zn was minder betekenisvol by subletale konsentrasies en selfs baie minder so by letale konsentrasies. DTPA en CaCl2 ge-ekstraheerde metale het veranderinge in die partisie/verdeling van Cu en Zn uitgewys met verandering in klei-inhoud, maar die tendens was nie altyd konstant nie. Beide DTPA en CaCl2 ekstraksie het toenemende beskikbaarheid van Zn in substrate uitgewys met toenemende soutinhoud. Soutinhoud het ‘n additiewe/toegevoegde tot sinergistiese vi toksisiteitseffek saam met Zn vir E. fetida. In kombinasie met Cu het soutgehalte ook die geskatte biobeskikbaarheid van Cu verhoog soos uitgewys deur die CaCl2, geekstraheerde fraksie, en het ‘n additiewe effek gehad op die toksisitiet van Cu vir die erdwurm. Die veldstudie kon nie die resultate van die laboratoriumstudie bevestig nie weens die belemmerende rol van vloede na swaar reënneerslae en daaropvolgende uitloging van soute en Cu. Die resultate van die eksperimentele ondersoek na die akute en chroniese effekte van NaCl op E. fetida het ‘n LC50 van 5436 mg/kg NaCl en EC50 vir groei en kokonproduksie van 4985 en 2020 mg/kg NaCl opgelewer. Hierdie waardes het aangetoon dat erdwurms moontlik negatief beinvloed kan word in baie gronde wat ‘n redelike gemiddelde konsentrasie van soute bevat. Soortgelyk kon A. caliginosa nie oorleef in natuurllike grond wat relatief lae soutkonsentrasies bevat het (EC=1.62 dS/m) nie terwyl voortplanting sterk ge-affekteer is by ‘n lae EC waarde van 0.52 dS/m. F. candida en E. doerjesi kon oorleef in die grond met die hoogste soutgehalte (EC= 1.62 dS/m) maar hulle voortplanting is ernstig geknou vanaf 1.03 dS/m. In geheel blyk dit dat van allle taksa wat gebruik is, erdwurms die sensitiefste was vir die stres wat deur soutgehalte veroorsaak is. Die kennis kan nuttig wees in die bepaling van “veilige vlakke” van sout in gekontamineerde gronde. Die resultate van die vermydingstoetse het getoon dat A. caliginosa beide natuurlike en kunsmatig versoute gronde vermy het by konsentrasies wat heelwat laer was as dié wat deur E. fetida vermy is Die gevolgtrekking is dat die invloed van klei en soutgehalte op die biobeskikbaarheid van Cu en Zn grootliks afhanklik is van die metale wat betrokke is en dat biobeskikbaarheid en toksisiteit normaalweg verminder het met verhoogde klei-inhoud, met die teenoorgestelde wat waar was in die geval van soutgehalte. Indien die spesies wat in die studie gebruik is beskou kan word as redelik verteenwoordigend van ‘n wye reeks van grondorganismes, is die gevolgtrekking dat versouting van gronde nadelig sal wees vir meeste grondorganismes, selfs by relatief lae soutkonsentrasies. In die lig van die rol wat nuttige grondorganismes speel in verskeie grondprosesse wat bydraend is tot grondvrugbaarheid en volhoubare gebruik van gronde, word dit aanbeveel dat enige boerderypraktyk wat mag lei tot verhoging van die soutinhoud van landbougronde ontmoedig moet word.

L’effet des pratiques agroécologiques traditionnelles et innovantes sur les paramètres de fertilité des sols agricoles cultivés en grande culture a été étudié. L’étude a été réalisée en milieu paysan dans la zone agricole de Sampieri à l’Est du Burkina Faso en milieu soudano-sahélien sur des lixisols. La perception des agriculteurs sur la dégradation des sols et la pratique de l’agroécologie, les déterminants de l’adoption des pratiques agroécologiques et l'effet de ces pratiques sur les paramètres physiques, chimiques et microbiologiques ont été déterminés pour des parcelles sous pratiques agroécologiques, versus traditionnelles, comparés aux sols témoins. L’effet de ces pratiques sur le rendement (grains et pailles) du sorgho a également été évalué. L’étude a montré que les pratiques traditionnelles dans la zone sont progressivement remplacées par des pratiques de culture agroécologiques qui ont été enseignées aux producteurs par les partenaires intervenants dans la zone.Les déterminants de l'adoption de ces pratiques sont entre autres l'augmentation des rendements des cultures, l'amélioration du revenu des producteurs, la fourniture ou non de ressources matérielles et humaines et la formation des acteurs. On note également que les agriculteurs ont des indicateurs qui leur sont spécifiques pour apprécier et décrire la fertilité de leurs sols. L’effet des pratiques a été plus significatif pour la plupart des paramètres chimiques (C, N, CE,…) surtout pour la couche 0-10 cm.Les pratiques agroécologiques ont un effet significativement positif sur l'activité minéralisatrice des microorganismes du sol. En outre, il existait une corrélation entre la superficie des parcelles aménagées en cordon pierreux et la plupart des paramètres de fertilité du sol. Par contre aucun gradient de fertilité des sols n’apparait en fonction de la pente lorsqu’on s’éloigne de la première ligne de cordon pierreux. / The effect of traditional and innovative agroecological practices on the fertility parameters of agricultural soils grown in the field was studied. The study was carried out in a peasant environment in the agricultural area of Sampieri in eastern Burkina Faso in the Sudano-Sahelian environment onlixisols. Farmers' perception of soil degradation and the practice of agroecology, the determinants of the adoption of agroecological practices and the effect of these practices on physical, chemical and microbiological parameters were determined for plots under agroecological practices, versus traditional, compared to control soils. The effect of these practices on the yield (grains and straws) of sorghum was also evaluated. The study showed that traditional practices are being gradually replaced by agroecological cultivation practices that have been taught to producers by the partners involved in the area. The determinants of the adoption of these practices are among others the increase in crop yields, the improvement of producers' income, the supply or not of material and human resources and the training of actors. It is also noted that farmers have indicators specific to them to appreciate and describe the fertility of their soils. The effect of the practices was more significant for most chemical parameters (C, N, CE,...) especially for the 0-10 cm layer. Agroecological practices have a significantly positive effect on the mineralizing activity of soil microorganisms. In addition, there was a correlation between the area of stony cord parcels and most soil fertility parameters. On the otherhand, no gradient of soil fertility appears as a function of the slope when one moves away from the first line of stony cord.

This thesis assessed effects of Amazonian deforestation on artificial association networks of bacteria to bacteria and to abiotic soil factors and networks based on categories of bacterial functions and abiotic soil factors, and sought a better insight into community of Acidobacteria in Amazon soils under agricultural management of soybean based on culture-dependent and molecular approaches. Bacterial community was studied based on next-generation sequencing technologies (Roche GS FLX Titanium and Illumina HiSeq 2000 platforms), quantitative real-time PCR, fingerprinting technique and basic procedures for bacteria culture. The general objective of this thesis was achieved by development of three different studies. The Study 1 analyzed the total bacterial community based on 16S ribosomal DNA pyrotag (425 thousand sequences), shotgun metagenomics (266 million sequences) and environmental parameters from soil samples collected in three real replicate of intact Amazon rainforest and adjacent deforested site after 2-4 months of forest clearing and burning in the Brazilian Amazon. This study showed that deforestation of Amazon forest soils led to a consistent decline in the abundance of Verrucomicrobia and alterations in verrucomicrobial community structure, and simplified association networks among different bacterial taxonomic groups and abiotic soil factors. In order to adapt to this condition function-based associations network were enhanced, indicating a higher degree of risk spreading for the maintenance of soil functioning. The Study 2, in turn, correlated relative abundance of Acidobacteria subgroups - based on approximately 33 thousand sequences of acidobacterial 16S rRNA genes - and abiotic soil factors, and showed differential response of Acidobacteria subgroups to abiotic soil factors in Amazon forest soils into soybean croplands. This study opened the possibilites to explore acidobacterial subgroups as early-warning bio-indicators of agricultural soil management effects in the Amazon area. Lastly, the Study 3 reported the culturability and molecular detection of Acidobacteria subgroups 1 and 3 concomitantly to other bacterial groups from Amazon soils on enriched culture medium with carbon source and incubated for relatively long period in hypoxic atmosphere (2% O2 [vol/vol], 2% CO2 [vol/vol] and 96% N2 [vol/vol]), and validated the combination of traditional procedures for bacteria culture and molecular techniques for recover and detection of Acidobacteria from Amazon soils / Este trabalho de tese avaliou o efeito do desmatamento sobre redes artificiais de associação entre grupos taxonômicos de Bacteria e fatores abióticos do solo e redes baseadas em funções bacterianas e fatores abióticos do solo, e utilizou técnicas moleculares e abordagem dependente de cultivo para compreender a dinâmica da comunidade de Acidobacteria em solos da floresta Amazônica convertidos em áreas agrícolas para produção de soja. Para estudo das comunidades bacterianas foram utilizadas tecnologias de sequenciamento de nova geração (plataformas 454 GS FLX Titanium da Roche e Illumina HiSeq 2000), PCR quantitativo em tempo-real, método de fingerprinting e procedimentos tradicionais para cultivo de bactérias. O objetivo geral desta tese foi alcançado com o desenvolvimento de três diferentes estudos. O Estudo 1 considerou aproximadamente 425 mil sequências do gene 16S rRNA de Bacteria e 266 milhões de sequências de DNA bacteriano obtidas por análise metagenômica a partir de solos coletados em três réplicas verdadeiras de floresta intacta na Amazônia e área desmatada adjacente após corte e queima da cobertura vegetal. Com isso, este estudo mostrou que o desmatamento declina a abundância e altera a estrutura de comunidade de Verrucomicrobia no solo e simplifica as redes artificiais de associação entre diferentes grupos bacterianos. A rede artificial de associação entre categorias funcionais e fatores de solo revelou-se mais complexa em solos desmatados, indicando um alto grau de dispersão de risco para a manutenção do funcionamento do solo. Por sua vez, o Estudo 2 correlacionou a abundância de subgrupos de Acidobacteria - com base em aproximadamente 33 mil sequências do gene 16S rRNA de Acidobacteria - com fatores abióticos do solo, e mostrou que subgrupos de Acidobacteria respondem diferentemente aos efeitos do manejo agrícola de solos da floresta Amazônica dentro de áreas de produção de soja. Este estudo abriu possibilidades de explorar subgrupos de Acidobacteria como bio-indicadores dos efeitos do manejo agrícola do solo na região da Amazônia. Por fim, o Estudo 3 reportou a culturabilidade e detecção molecular de Acidobacteria subgrupos 1 e 3 e outros grupos bacterianos presentes em solos Amazônicos em meio de cultura enriquecido com carbono e incubado sob atmosfera hipóxica (2% O2 [vol/vol], 2% CO2 [vol/vol] e 96% N2 [vol/vol]), atestando, assim, a combinação de procedimentos tradicionais de cultivo e técnicas moleculares para a recuperação e detecção de Acidobacteria de solos da Amazônia

A conservação da biodiversidade edáfica na Floresta Ombrófila Mista favorece os processos de decomposição e ciclagem de nutrientes, melhorando as propriedades físicoquímicas e biológicas do solo. O objetivo deste trabalho foi verificar o potencial dos atributos da macrofauna edáfica, Fungos Micorrízicos Arbusculares (FMA) e de variáveis ambientais explicativas (físico-químicas e microbiológicas) como indicadores de qualidade do solo em duas épocas contrastantes (inverno e verão) em Floresta de Araucária do Estado de São Paulo. Foram avaliadas florestas com Araucaria angustifolia nativa (NF) e reflorestada (RF) em três regiões distintas do Estado de São Paulo. Cada floresta teve três repetições verdadeiras, nas quais, foram coletadas, ao acaso, quinze amostras de solo para avaliação dos atributos físicos (densidade, macroporosidade, microporosidade, porosidade total e umidade), químicos [pH, teores de carbono orgânico (C-org), P, Ca, Mg, K, Al e H+Al] e biológicos [macrofauna, FMA, carbono da biomassa microbiana (CBM), respiração basal, quociente metabólico (qCO2) e atividade da desidrogenase (Desi)]. Nos mesmos pontos de amostragem, foram avaliadas a macrofauna edáfica, a densidade de FMA e a colonização micorrízica em raízes de araucária. Na serapilheira foi avaliada a massa seca (MSS) e foram determinados os teores de C, N e S. Os atributos físico-químicos e microbiológicos do solo e químicos da serapilheira foram submetidos à análise de variância (Two-way ANOVA). A abundância da macrofauna e de espécies de minhocas foram submetidas à Análise de Componentes Principais (ACP) e as variáveis microbiológicas, MSS, físico-químicas do solo e da serapilheira foram usadas como variáveis explicativas (VE). A abundância de espécies de FMA foi submetida à ACP e as variáveis físico-químicas do solo e da serapilheira foram usadas como VE. Adicionalmente, a abundância da macrofauna e as VE foram submetidas à Análise Canônica Discriminante (ACD) e a uma Análise de Correlação Canônica (ACC). A macrofauna apresentou maior riqueza de grupos no verão, sendo que a NF proporcionou a maior diversidade de grupos. A umidade, porosidade total, teor de S na serapilheira, pH, teor de K, CBM e respiração basal foram os atributos edáficos mais importantes para separar as áreas. O grupo Oligochaeta, principamente as espécies Ponthoscolex corethrurus e Amynthas spp., foram boas indicadoras de qualidade do solo e/ou de distúrbio na Floresta de Araucária. Encontraram-se 36 táxons de FMA, sendo os gêneros Glomus, Acaulospora e Scutellospora os mais abundantes. A espécie Ambispora appendicula apresentou a maior abundância relativa. No inverno, observou-se alta correlação da Desi e C-CO2 com pH e H+Al, enquanto que no verão, o C-org, umidade, Mg, pH e C da serapilheira se correlacionaram com a atividade da Desi e C-CO2. Os atributos H+Al, P, porosidade total, S da serapilheira e umidade do solo foram os mais importantes na separação das áreas, independente de épocas de coleta. / The conservation of edaphic biodiversity in Araucaria Forests favors the processes of decomposition and nutrient cycling, improving the physico-chemical and biological soil properties. The objective of this study was to investigate the potential of the macrofauna, mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and environmental explanatory variables (physico, chemical and microbiological) as indicators of soil quality in two different contrasting seasons (winter and summer) in Araucaria Forests. We evaluated forests with native Araucaria angustifolia (NF) and reforested areas (RF) in three different regions in the State of São Paulo. Each forest had three true replicates, in which we collected at random, fifteen soil samples for evaluation of physical attributes (density, macroporosity, microporosity, total porosity and moisture), chemical attributes [pH, organic carbon (org-C), P, Ca, Mg, K, Al and H+Al] and biological attributes [macrofauna, AMF, microbial biomass carbon (MBC), basal respiration (CO2-C), metabolic quotient (qCO2) and dehydrogenase activity (Desi)]. At the same sampling points we evaluated the edaphic macrofauna, the density of AMF and root colonization in Araucaria. We evaluated the litter dry matter (MSS) and analyzed the contents of C, N and S. The physico-chemical and microbiological soil attributes and the chemical litter attributes were submitted to analysis of variance (Two-way ANOVA). The abundance of macrofauna and of earthworm species were submitted to a Principal Components Analysis (PCA) and the microbiological variables, litter dry weight, physico-chemical attributes of soil and litter were used as explanatory variables (EV). The abundance of AMF species was submitted to the PCA and the physico-chemical variables of soil and litter were used as EV. Additionally, the abundance of macrofauna and EV were submitted to a Canonical Discriminant Analysis (CDA) and to one Canonical Correlation Analysis (CCA). The macrofauna showed greater richness of groups in the summer, and the NF provided the highest diversity. Moisture, total porosity, S litter content, pH, K, MBC and basal respiration were the edaphic attributes most important to separate the areas. The group Oligochaeta, especially the species Ponthoscolex corethrurus and Amynthas spp., were good indicators of soil quality and/or disturbance in these Araucaria forests. We found 35 AMF taxons, and the genera Glomus, Acaulospora and Scutellospora were the most abundant. The species Ambispora appendicula showed the highest relative abundance. In winter, a high correlation of the microbiological attributes Desi and CO2-C with pH and H+Al was found, while in the summer, the org-C, moisture, Mg, pH and Carbon of the litter were more correlated with Desi activity and C-CO2. The attributes H+Al, P, total porosity, S of the litter and soil moisture were the most important attributes to discriminate the areas, regardless of the season.

O presente trabalho esteve inserido em um projeto mais amplo de cooperação internacional intitulado Conservation and Sustainable Management of Below-Ground Biodiversity CSMBGBD/ BiosBrasil, implementado pela United Nations Environment Programmer (UNEP) na bacia do Alto Solimões, Amazônia Ocidental, estado do Amazonas. Esta região é território remanescente de povos indígenas e permanece conservada, sendo um importante hotspot de biodiversidade. Ainda assim, as áreas de estudo foram caracterizadas por paisagens antropizadas com diferentes sistemas de usos da terra. Amostras de solos foram coletadas em um período de elevado índice pluviométrico, nos anos de 2008 e 2009, em áreas caracterizadas por floresta primária tropical, cultivos semiperenes de mandioca manejados por prática agrícola de corte-equeima, pastagens implantadas nos anos de 1970 e áreas florestais em estádios avançados de regeneração (>10 anos de abandono). As amostras foram analisadas pelas técnicas de DGGE, ARISA, clonagem e sequenciamento a fim de obter uma caracterização das estruturas de comunidades de Archaea, Bacteria e microfungos e da composição e diversidade de um grupo funcional de Archaea envolvido no processo de oxidação de amônia nos ambientes do solo. Os resultados permitiram concluir que o uso da terra tem um grande efeito sobre as estruturas de comunidades de Archaea, Bacteria e microfungos presentes no solo e sugerem que longo período de abandono das áreas é necessário para cumprir com a resiliência dos ecossistemas amazônicos no contexto de recomposição da paisagem. Adicionalmente, os dados revelaram que a riqueza e a diversidade de comunidades de Archaea oxidadoras de amônia foram capazes de refletir sensivelmente as alterações percebidas nos ambientes do solo em decorrência do desmatamento de áreas de floresta primária e uso subsequente com cultivo agrícola tradicional e pastagem na região do Alto Solimões, Amazônia Ocidental. / The present study was part of a wider project of international cooperation entitled Conservation and Sustainable Management of Below-Ground Biodiversity CSMBGBD/ BiosBrasil, established by the United Nations Environment Programmer (UNEP) at the basin of Alto Solimões, Western Amazon, Amazonas State. This region is a remanescent territory of indigenous people and remains conserved, being considered an important hotspot of biodiversity. Even though, the studied areas were characterized by mosaic landscapes under different land use systems. Soil samples were collected in a period of high pluviometric index in the years 2008 and 2009 in areas characterized by tropical rainforest, semi permanent manioc cultivation under agricultural management of slash-and-burn, pasture established in the 1970s and forested areas at a higher stage of regeneration (>10 years abandoned). The samples were analyzed by DGGE, ARISA techniques, cloning and sequencing in order to obtain a characterization of the community structure of Archaea, Bacteria and microfungi and the composition and diversity of an archaeal functional group involved in the process of ammonia oxidation in the soil environments. The results allowed to conclude that land use has a great effect on the community structure of Archaea, Bacteria and microfungi present in the soil and suggest that long period of abandon of the areas is necessary to accomplish with the resilience of Amazonian ecosystems in the context of landscape recomposition. Additionally, the data revealed that richness and community diversity of ammonia oxidizing Archaea were able to sensitively reflect the changes observed in the soil environment due to deforestation of rainforest areas and subsequent use with traditional agriculture cultivation and pasture in the region of Alto Solimões, Western Amazon.

A dinâmica dos herbicidas no solo é influenciada pela umidade e pela quantidade e qualidade da matéria orgânica, que são variáveis nos agregados organominerais. Os objetivos foram avaliar a influência do grau de umidade na mineralização e sorção do 2,4-D (ácido fraco) e Diuron (não ionizável), em quatro latossolos com diferentes quantidades de matéria orgânica do solo (M.O.S.), avaliar a influência do tamanho do agregado (> 150, 54 - 150, 21 - 53, 2 - 20 e < 2 mm) na sorção dos herbicidas e determinar o grau de humificação para explicar possíveis diferenças na sorção. Foram utilizadas amostras superficiais (0 - 0,2 m) de um Latossolo Amarelo distrófico (LAd) (Piracicaba/SP), de um Latossolo Amarelo ácrico (LAw) (Uberlândia/MG), de um Latossolo Vermelho ácrico (LVw-1) (Uberlândia/MG) e de um Latossolo Vermelho ácrico (LVw-2) (Canoinhas/SC). Foram determinados os valores de pH (em H2 O, KCl 1,0 mol L -1 e CaCl2 0,01 mol L -1 ), a quantidade de M.O.S., de fósforo, de K + , de Ca 2+ , de Mg 2+ , de Al 3+ e estimada a soma H+Al. Os óxidos de ferro, de alumínio e de silício foram quantificados após extração com ácido sulfúrico, os óxidos de ferro "livre" e mal cristalinizado também foi determinado e a análise granulométrica foi efetuada pelo método do densímetro, sendo quantificada também a argila dispersa em água (ADA). Foi determinada a mineralogia por difração de raio-X. Foram quantificadas as frações organominerais dos solos. Foram dispersos 40 g de solo em 160 mL de água destilada, que foram agitados a 160 agitações min -1 por 16 h e sonificada por 15 min. Após disperso, o solo foi peneirado para separar os agregados > 150 mm e entre 53 e 150 mm. Os agregados menores que 53 mm foram separados por sedimentação. Foi determinado o carbono orgânico dos agregados e do solo por combustão. A atividade microbiana dos solos foi determinada pelo método da radiorespirometria. Amostras dos solos foram incubadas com 14 C-2,4-D e 14 C-diuron por 42 dias umedecidas a 25, 50 e 75 % da capacidade de campo em sala climatizada semi-escura a 22 ± 2 o C, após foram realizadas três extrações com CaCl2 0,01 mol L -1 . O solo foi então fracionado após oxidação para determinar o os herbicidas sorvidos no solo e, posteriormente nos diferentes agregados. O grau de humificação das amostras foi determinado por fluorescência. A mineralização do 2,4-D foi de 62 % no LAd a 75 % da capacidade de campo. A difusão foi responsável pela sorção dos herbicidas. O 2,4-D foi menos sorvido no LAd, que tinha maior pH e menor quantidade de M.O.S.. Os solos apresentaram maior quantidade de agregados > 150 mm. Os agregados organominerais de diâmetro menores que 53 mm apresentaram maior acúmulo de carbono. A exceção do LAd, os herbicidas foram mais sorvidos pelos agregados maiores que 53 mm. A sorção só aumentou nos agregados menores que 53 mm, quando a amostra foi incubada a 75 % da capacidade de campo. Porém, no caso do diuron, isto só foi verificado no LAw e LVw-1. As sucessivas extrações alteraram a estabilidade dos agregados. O LAd que se localiza em uma área de cultivo tem maior grau de humificação que o LVw-2 localizado em uma área não cultivada. Os agregados de diâmetro entre 53 e 150 mm, foram os que tiveram maior grau de humificação nos solos. / The dynamic of herbicides in soils is influenced by soil moisture and organic matter contents and also by their quality, which are variable in the organic-mineral aggregates of the soils. The aims of this research were to evaluate the effects of soil moisture on the mineralization and sorption of the herbicides 2,4-D (weak acid) and diuron (non-ionic), in four Oxisols with different contents of soil organic matter (SOM), as well as to evaluate the influence of aggregate sizes (> 150, 54 - 150, 21 - 53, 2 - 20 and < 2 mm) and degree of humification in the sorption of these herbicides. Surface samples (0 - 0.2 m) of one Xanthic Hapludox (LAd, from Piracicaba/SP), one Xanthic Acrudox (LAw, from Uberlândia/MG), and two Anionic Acrudox (LVw-1 from Uberlândia/MG and LVw-2 from Canoinhas/SC) were collected. SOM, phosphorus, K + , Ca 2+ , and Mg 2+ contents and pH values (in H2 O, in KCl 1.0 mol L -1 and in CaCl2 0.01 mol L -1 ) were measured, whereas H+Al was calculated. Fe, Al, and Si oxides were quantified after soil extraction with H2SO4. Free and amorphous Fe oxides were determined by DCB and oxalate method, respectively. Granulometric analysis and water dispersed clay (WDC) were quantified by the densimeter method. The mineralogy was evaluated by X-ray diffraction. In order to quantify soil organic-mineral aggregates, 40 g of soil was added to 160 mL of distilled water in centrifuge tubes, which were shaken for 16 h at 160 rpm and sonicated for 15 min at 240 W. The aggregates > 150 and 53 - 150 mm were obtained by sieving, whereas the aggregates < 53 mm were obtained by sedimentation. Soil and aggregate organic carbon contents were obtained by combustion. The soil microbial activity was obtained by the radiorespirometry method. Soils were incubated with 14 C-2,4-D and 14 C-diuron, for 42 d at 25, 50 and 75 % of the field capacity and remained in a semi-dark room at controlled temperature of 22 ± 2 o C. Then, the pesticides were extracted three times with CaCl2 0.01 mol L -1 and, afterwards, the soil samples were fractionated in order to quantify the amount of herbicides in the aggregates. In these, the degree of humification was obtained by fluorescence. Diffusion markedly affected the herbicides sorption. For example, 2,4-D mineralization was 62 % on LAd only at 75 % field capacity. As expected, 2,4-D was less sorbed on LAd that had higher pH and lower SOM content. In general, the soils presented higher amounts of aggregates > 150 mm. The organic-mineral aggregates < 53 mm presented higher organic carbon content. However, the herbicides were more sorbed in the aggregates > 53 mm, except for LAd. When the soil were at 75 % of the field capacity, the sorption increased in the aggregates < 53 mm for 2,4-D, but it was only verified for LAw and LVw-1 for diuron. The successive extractions altered the aggregate stability. The LAd located in a tilled area had higher degree of humification than the LVw-2 located in a non-tilled area. The soil aggregates between 53 and 150 mm presented higher degree of humification.

Avaliou-se o efeito das doses dos metais, cádmio e níquel, na velocidade de degradação da matéria orgânica adicionada ao solo através de torta de filtro em ensaios de respirometria. O solo utilizado, Latossolo Vermelho Amarelo de textura média, foi amostrado a uma profundidade de 0-20 cm. Foram aplicadas doses de 0; 28; 56; 112 e 200 mg kg-1 de cádmio e 0; 62,5; 125; 250 e 500 mg kg-1 de níquel como CdCl2.2,5H2O e NiCl2.6H2O, respectivamente. As doses de torta de filtro foram de 0, 40, 80 e 120 Mg ha-1, definidas com base nas doses normalmente aplicadas no cultivo de cana. Na instalação dos experimentos, as massas requeridas dos metais foram adicionadas a 800 g de solo, após a incorporação da torta de filtro. Foram empregados potes de vidro com tampa vedante e capacidade de 2 L, contendo solo umedecido para atingir 80% da capacidade máxima de retenção de água. A incubação foi conduzida à temperatura de 28oC durante 72 dias. Os dois ensaios de incubação, um para cádmio e outro para níquel, foram conduzidos em esquema fatorial 5 x 4, em delineamento inteiramente casualizado, com 3 repetições. O CO2 liberado do solo foi absorvido em solução de NaOH e quantificado por método condutimétrico. No solo, após o período de incubação, foram determinados: pH (H2O) e a fração do metal extraído por solução DTPA-TEA pH 7,3. Curvas de respiração foram estabelecidas a partir das quantidades acumuladas de CO2 liberado e ajustadas ao modelo duplo de cinética de primeira ordem. O efeito dos metais foi avaliado em função das constantes de velocidade obtidas nos ajustes. Considerando-se o pH do solo, medido no final da incubação, observou-se tendência de elevação do pH em função das doses de cádmio aplicadas nas maiores doses de torta de filtro. Para o níquel, na ausência de torta de filtro ou na dose de 40 Mg ha-1 não ocorreu resposta, por outro lado, observou-se um efeito mais expressivo a elevação do pH na dose de 120 Mg ha-1 de torta de filtro e na presença de 500 mg kg-1 de níquel. De maneira geral, a extração de cádmio do solo, ao final do experimento, através da solução DTPA-TEA pH 7,3 foi maior que a de níquel. A torta de filtro afetou mais a eficiência de extração do níquel do que do cádmio. A produção total de CO2 acumulada foi afetada negativamente tanto pelo cádmio como pelo níquel em proporção direta às doses dos metais. Observou-se ainda um efeito positivo dos metais sobre a velocidade de degradação, ou seja, os parâmetros cinéticos indicaram que, sob efeito dos metais estudados, a torta de filtro é degradada em menor proporção, mas de maneira mais rápida. Considerando-se a porcentagem de degradação da matéria orgânica, conclui-se que o efeito negativo de cádmio e níquel estudados foi similar, com uma redução de 46 e 48 %, respectivamente. O efeito do cádmio na degradação foi mais pronunciado na dose de 50 mg kg-1, enquanto que o efeito do níquel variou linearmente com o aumento das doses do metal. / It was evaluated the effect of doses of nickel and cadmium on the degradation of the organic matter applied to soil by means of filter cake in a respirometry trial. Soil employed was Latossolo Vermelho Amarelo, sampled in the field at depth of 0-20 cm. It were applied doses of 0; 28; 56; 112 and 200 mg kg-1 Cd and 0; 62,5; 125; 250 and 500 mg kg-1 Ni as CdCl2.2,5H2O and NiCl2.6H2O, respectively. The filter cake doses were 0, 40, 80 e 120 Mg ha-1, defined in a sugarcane crop basis. In the start of the experiment, a require metals mass was added to 800g soil mass, after filter cake incorporation. It were applied 2 liter glass flask with a closed stopple. Soil moisture was adjusted to 80% of the water holding capacity value and the incubation carried out at 28 degrees Celsius during 72 days. The two trials, one for nickel and the other for cadmium, were established in a 5 x 4 factorial and fully randomized design with 3 replications. The CO2 gas evolved from soil due to microbial respiration was absorbed in a fixed volume of NaOH solution and its amount was then estimated by a condutometric method. After the incubation period the soil pH and the metal content extracted by the DTPA-TEA pH 7,3 solution were determined. Respiratory curves were established through the accumulated amount of CO2 evolved from soil using a double phase first order kinetics model and the metal effect was analyzed with basis on the first order rate constants. The metals effect was evaluated in constant velocity role obtained by adjusts. Considering the soil pH, measured at the end of the incubation period, it was observed a trend of pH increasing as doses of cadmium increase, applied on the greater filter cake doses. Concerning nickel, in filter cake absence or in the 40 Mg ha-1 dose of there was no response and the most expressive effect of pH rising occurred in dose of 120 Mg ha-1 of filter cake in the presence of 500 mg kg-1 nickel. In general the extraction of cadmium in the soil, at the end of the experiment, by solution DTPA-TEA pH 7,3 was greater than nickel. The filter cake affected more the efficiency extraction of nickel than cadmium. The accumulated total CO2 production was affected negatively as cadmium as for nickel in direct ratio to the doses of the metals. It was still observed a positive effect of metals on the degradation speed of filter cake organic matter. The kinetic parameters indicated that, under effect of studied metals, the filter cake is degraded in a lesser ratio, but in a faster manner. Considering the percentage of organic material degradation, it was concluded that the negative effect of cadmium and nickel was similar, with a reduction of 46 and 48 %, respectively. The cadmium effect on the degradation was more pronounced with 50 mg kg-1, while the nickel effect rose linearly with metal doses increase.