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A ênfase de todo o trabalho é relacionada com a preparação de soluções sólidas, concentrando-se na matriz de niobato de lítio, LiNbO3, puro e suas soluções sólidas óxidas, onde obtemos monocristais de LiNbO3 com Cr3+, Fe3+ e Mg2+. Os monocristais de LiNbO3são obtidos pelo método de Czochralski (fusão) e a caracterização de suas propriedades está voltada para a análise da perfeição estrutural, da distribuição de dopantes na matriz cristalina, da orientação dos domínios de dipolos ferroelétricos e o estudo do comportamento do coeficiente de segregação efetivo com os parâmetros de crescimento, com a cinética de adsorção e com o efeito de facetamento / The emphasis of all this work is related to the preparation of solid solutions, concentrating on lithium niobate single crystals, LiNbO3, pure and its oxide solid solutions, where we can obtain LiNbO3 single crystals doped with Cr3+, Fe3+ and Mg2+. The LiNbO3 single crystals are obtained by the Czochralski method (fusion) and the characterization of its properties is on the analysis of the structural perfection, of the distribution of the doping in the crystal matrix, of the orientation of the domains ferroelectrics dipoles and the study of the effective segregation coefficient behavior, with the growing parameters, with the adsorption kinetic and the facet effect

Experimentos sistemáticos de crescimento de cristais pelo método de soluções sólidas óxidas de GdAlO3:Cr3+ (estrutura pseudo perovskita), foram efetuados em diversas composições de solventes. Os perfis de concentrações dopante (Cr3+) e do solvente (Pb),em amostras previamente selecionadas e os coeficientes de segregação efetivos foram determinados e comparados com os dos cristais crescidos pelo método Czochralski. Modelos teóricos foram desenvolvidos para o entendimento dos resultados experimentais e outros são propostos com o objetivo de fornecer tratamentos alternativos para os efeitos dos parâmetros de crescimento tais como: flutuações térmicas, forma geométrica nucleações secundárias, evaporação do dopante, reações químicas e estabilidade de crescimento na homogeneidade das soluções sólidas. Devido ao interesse científico-tecnológico também foram crescidos outros cristais de estrutura perovskita como GdAlO3:La3+, LaAlO3:Cr3+ e NdAlO3:La3+ pelo método de fluxo e GdAlO3:Cr3+:La3+, pelo método Czocharalski e os resultados das experiências de crescimento estão descritas neste trabalho. / Systematic growth experiments by flux method of the oxides solid solutions of GdAlO3:Cr3+ (perovskite type) were done with several solvents compositions. The doping (Cr3+) and solvent (Pb) concentrations profiles in selected samples, and the effetive segregations coefficient were determined and compared with those obtained by Czochralski method. Theoretical models for crystal growth process were developed to understand the experimental results, and others are proposed to give alternative treatment on several growing parameters like thermal fluctuations, geometric crystal shape, secondary nucleations, doping evaporations, chemical reactions and growth stability effects in the solid solutions homogeneity. Due to scientific and technological interest, also were grown other perovskite crystals like GdAlO3:La3+, LaAlO3:Cr3+ and NdAlO3:La3+ by flux method and GdAlO3:Cr3+:La3+ by Czochralski method and the results are descrived in the present work.

O depósito Madeira (Sn, Nb, Ta) está localizado na mina de Pitinga (norte do Brasil). O depósito é associado à fácies albita granito do Granito Madeira, de tipo A (~1,820 Ma). A mina extrai comercialmente Sn (cassiterita), Nb e Ta (U-Pb-pirocloro e zircão). Flúor (criolita), Y, REE (xenotima), Zr (zircão), U (U-Pb-pirocloro e zircão) e Th (torita) são subprodutos em potencial. Este trabalho apresenta um estudo detalhado da mineralização de torita nas subfacies do albita granito: albita granito de núcleo, albita granito de borda e pegmatitos associados. O depósito Madeira é apresentado neste trabalho como um dos maiores depósitos de Th do mundo, com 164 Mt de minério disseminado, teor médio de 759 ppm ThO2 na rocha, e concentrações maiores (de até 1,8 wt.% ThO2) em pegmatitos pequenos (média de ~0,51 wt.% ThO2). Composicionalmente, a torita deste estudo pode ocorrer próxima do polo da torita ou representar substituições relativamente limitadas no sistema de soluções sólidas torita-zircão-xenotima-coffinita. A concentração de Fe na torita varia entre 0,11 wt.% Fe2O3 e 29,56 wt.% Fe2O3 e, em muitos casos, é considerada de natureza estrutural, assim como o conteúdo de F (de até 6,02 wt.% F). A torita de todas as subfacies foram fortemente afetadas por alterações hidrotermais relacionadas a fluidos aquosos ricos em F de baixa temperatura. A hidratação da torita permitiu a introdução de M3+ cátions (Y, ETR, Fe e Al) e F, e causou perdas no conteúdo de Si e Th (média de ~0,51 wt.% ThO2). A alteração também foi responsável pela formação de uma auréola de Fe nos grãos de torita, com minerais secundários associados, provavelmente Th-Fe-hidroxifluoretos e Y-Th-Fe-fluorcarbonatos. A média da razão Th/U em rocha total é de 1,85 no albita granito de borda, 3,82 no albita granito de núcleo, e 19,85 nos pegmatitos associados. Esta variação reflete um padrão de evolução magmática, com maior disponibilidade de U em estágios precoces e empobrecimento de U em estágios tardios. Em Pitinga, as mineralizações de Th e U são divididas em diferentes minerais, formados em estágios distintos da evolução. Esta característica está relacionada à riqueza de flúor e à alta alcalinidade do magma, que inibiram a cristalização precoce de zircão, bem como de columbita, e favoreceu a formação precoce de U-Pb-pirocloro. Quando a cristalização de silicatos hidratados reduziu a alcalinidade do magma, a cristalização de zircão (de um magma previamente empobrecido em U, Nb, Ta e ETRL) se tornou intensa, acompanhado de torita e xenotima. / The world-class Sn-Nb-Ta Madeira deposit is located at the Pitinga mine (northern Brazil). The deposit is associated with the albite-enriched granite facies of the A-type Madeira Granite (~1,820 Ma). The mine commercially extracts tin (cassiterite), Nb and Ta (U-Pb-pyrochlore and columbite). Fluorine (cryolite), Y, REE (xenotime), Zr (zircon), U (U-Pb-pyrochlore and zircon) and Th (thorite) are potential byproducts. This work presents a detailed study on the thorite mineralization from the albite-enriched granite subfacies: the core albite-enriched granite, the border albite-enriched granite and the associated pegmatites. The Madeira deposit is revealed in this work to be among the largest Th deposits in the world, with 164 Mt of homogeneously dispersed ore, with an average grade of 759 ppm ThO2 in the rock, and higher concentrations (up to 1.8 wt.% ThO2) in small pegmatites (average of ~ 0.51 wt.% ThO2). Thorite compositions are either close to the thorite pole or correspond to relatively limited substitutions in the thorite-zircon-xenotime-coffinite solid solution system. The Fe concentration in thorite ranges from 0.11 wt.% to 29.56 wt.% Fe2O3 and in many cases is considered of structural nature, as well as part of the F content (up to 6.02 wt.% F). Thorites from all subfacies were strongly affected by hydrothermal alterations related to F-rich low-temperature aqueous fluids. The hydration of thorite allowed the introduction of M3+ cations (Y, REE, Fe, and Al) and F, and caused losses in Si and Th (average of ~48 wt.% ThO2). The alteration also created a Fe-rich halo in thorite, with associated secondary minerals, likely Th-Fe-hydroxyfluorides and Y-Th-Fe-fluorcarbonates. The Th/U average ratio values in bulk-rock are 1.85 in the border albite-enriched granite, 3.82 in the core albite-enriched granite, and 19.85 in the associated pegmatites. This variation reflects a magmatic evolution pattern, with higher availability of U in the earlier stages and depletion of U in late stages. At Pitinga, Th and U mineralization are divided into different minerals formed in different stages of the magma evolution. This feature is related to the richness of fluorine and the high alkalinity of the magma that greatly inhibited the early crystallization of zircon, as well of columbite, and favored the early appearance of U-Pb-pyrochlore. When the crystallization of hydrous silicates reduced the alkalinity, the crystallization of zircon (from a magma depleted in U, Nb, Ta and LREE) become intense, accompanied by thorite and xenotime.

Processes that take place in the Earth’s mantle are not accessible to direct observation. Natural samples of mantle material that have been transported to the surface as xenoliths provide useful information on phase relations and compositions of phases at the pressure and temperature conditions of each rock fragment. In the past, considerable effort has been devoted by petrologists to investigate upper mantle processes experimentally. Results of high temperatures, high pressure experiments have provided insight into lower crust-upper mantle phase relations as a function of temperature, pressure and composition. However, the attainment of equilibrium in these experiments, especially in complex systems, may be very difficult to test rigorously. Furthermore, experimental results may also require extrapolation to different pressures, temperatures or bulk compositions. More recently, thermodynamic modeling has proved to be a very powerful approach to this problem, allowing the deciphering the physicochemical conditions at which mantle processes occur. On the other hand, a comprehensive thermodynamic model to investigate lower crust-upper mantle phase assemblages in complex systems does not exist. ¶ In this study, a new thermodynamic model to describe phase equilibria between silicate and/or oxide crystalline phases has been derived. For every solution phase the molar Gibbs free energy is given by the sum of contributions from the energy of the end-members, ideal mixing on sites, and excess site mixing terms. It is here argued that the end-member term of the Gibbs free energy for complex solid solution phases (e.g. pyroxene, spinel) has not previously been treated in the most appropriate manner. As an example, the correct expression of this term for a pyroxene solution in a general (Na-Ca-Mg-Fe2+-Al-Cr-Fe3+-Si-Ti) system is presented and the principle underlying its formulation for any complex solution phase is elucidated.¶ Based on the thermodynamic model an algorithm to compute lower crust-upper mantle phase equilibria for subsolidus mineral assemblages as a function of composition, temperature and pressure has been developed. Included in the algorithm is a new way to represent the total Gibbs free energy for any multi-phase complex system. At any given temperature and pressure a closed multi-phase system is at its equilibrium condition when the chemical composition of the phases present in the system and the number of moles of each are such that the Gibbs free energy of the system reaches its minimum value. From a mathematical point of view, the determination of equilibrium phase assemblages can, in short, be defined as a constrained minimization problem. To solve the Gibbs free energy minimization problem a ‘Feasible Iterate Sequential Quadratic Programming’ method (FSQP) is employed. The system’s Gibbs free energy is minimized under several different linear and non-linear constraints. The algorithm, coded as a highly flexible FORTRAN computer program (named ‘Gib’), has been set up, at the moment, to perform equilibrium calculations in NaO-CaO-MgO-FeO-Al2O3-Cr2O3-Fe2O3- SiO2-TiO2 systems. However, the program is designed in a way that any other oxide component could be easily added.¶ To accurately forward model phase equilibria compositions using ‘Gib’, a precise estimation of the thermodynamic data for mineral end-members and of the solution parameters that will be adopted in the computation is needed. As a result, the value of these parameters had to be derived/refined for every solution phase in the investigated systems. A computer program (called ‘GibInv’) has been set up, and its implementation is here described in detail, that allows the simultaneous refinement of any of the end-member and mixing parameters. Derivation of internally consistent thermodynamic data is obtained by making use of the Bayesian technique. The program, after being successfully tested in a synthetic case, is initially applied to pyroxene assemblages in the system CaO-MgO-FeO-Al2O3-SiO2 (i.e. CMFAS) and in its constituent subsystems. Preliminary results are presented.¶ The new thermodynamic model is then applied to assemblages of Ca-Mg-Fe olivines and to assemblages of coexisting pyroxenes (orthopyroxene, low Ca- and high Ca clinopyroxene; two or three depending on T-P-bulk composition conditions), in CMFAS system and subsystems. Olivine and pyroxene solid solution and end-member parameters are refined, in part using ‘GibInv’ and in part on a ‘trial and error’ basis, and, when necessary, new parameters are derived. Olivine/pyroxene phase relations within such systems and their subsystems are calculated over a wide range of temperatures and pressures and compare very favorably with experimental constraints.

Polyanionic compounds have been heavily investigated as possible electrode materials in lithium- and sodium-ion batteries. Chief among these is lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4) which adopts the olivine structure and has a potential of 3.5 V vs. Li/Li+. Many aspects of ion transport, solid-solution behaviour and their relation to particle size in olivine systems are not entirely understood. Morphology, unit cell parameters, purity and electrochemical performance of prepared LiFePO4 powders were greatly affected by the synthetic conditions. Partially delithiated olivines were heated and studied by Mössbauer spectroscopy and solid-solution behaviour by electron delocalization was observed. The onset of this phenomenon was around 470-500 K in bulk material but in nanocrystalline powders, the onset of a solid solution was observed around 420 K. The isostructural manganese member of this family (LiMnPO4) was also prepared hydrothermally. Owing to the thermal instability of MnPO4, partially delithiated LiMnPO4 did not display any solid-solution behaviour. Phosphates based on the tavorite (LiFePO4OH) structure include LiVPO4F and LiFePO4(OH)1-xFx which may be prepared hydrothermally or by solid state routes. LiVPO4F is a high capacity (2 electrons/transition metal) electrode material and the structures of the fully reduced Li2VPO4F and fully oxidized VPO4F were ascertained. Owing to structural nuances, the potential of the iron tavorites are much lower than that of the olivines. The structure of Li2FePO4F was determined by a combined X-ray and neutron diffraction analysis. The electrochemical properties of very few phosphates based on sodium are known. A novel fluorophosphate, Na2FePO4F, was prepared by both solid state and hydrothermal methods. This material exhibited two two-phase plateau regions on cycling in a half cell versus sodium but displayed solid-solution behaviour when cycled versus lithium, where the average potential was 3.3 V. On successive cycling versus Li a decrease in the sodium content of the active material was observed, which implied an ion-exchange reaction occurred between the material and the lithium electrolyte. Studies of polyanionic materials as positive electrode materials in alkali metal-ion batteries show that some of these materials, namely those which contain iron, hold the most promise in replacing battery technologies currently available.

Mineral scale formation is important to many areas of science and engineering, from drinking water treatment to oceanography to oil and gas production. In some cases mineral deposition is beneficial, as in water treatment for heavy metal or arsenic removal, and sometimes it is deleterious, as occurs in oil and gas production due to co-produced water. In either case, understanding the mechanisms of precipitation and inhibition is critical. Work in this thesis has focused on the impact of metal ions on mineral scale formation, and control. The results reveal that the addition of metal ions in the pill solution significantly improved the retention of scale inhibitors. Both BHPMP and DTPMP returns were significantly extended by the addition of Ca 2+ and Fe 2+ Also trace levels of Zn 2+ significantly enhanced the performance and retention of both BHPMP and DTPMP. The enhanced scale inhibition may be caused by a complex of metal ions with amine group of polyamino- polyphosphonates. It is known that the effectiveness of inhibitors varies upon the type of scale formed where it has been mentioned in the literature that common calcium carbonate inhibitors are not effective for preventing iron carbonate. Therefore, this work was also intended to investigate the impact of calcium and iron ions in the co-precipitation of iron-calcium carbonate solid solutions (Fe x Ca 1-x CO 3 ). Three different experimental methods were applied to investigate and predict the precipitation of Fe x Ca 1-x CO 3 : Free drift, continuous feeding, and constant composition experiments. The results from all methods showed that calcium carbonate was kinetically favored to precipitate rather than iron carbonate when the solution is supersaturated with respect to calcium carbonate and iron carbonate. In the constant composition experiments a series of solid solutions of iron-calcium carbonate ranging from calcium-rich to iron-rich was precipitated. Based upon the experimental results and the theoretical derivation, a new model in a form of logistic function was developed to predict the stoichiometry of Fe x Ca 1-x CO 3 as a function of the aqueous solution composition. The model showed an excellent representation for the experimental results with R 2 greater than 0.97 and 0.88 for Fe x Ca 1-x CO 3 and Ba x Ca 1-x CO 3 , respectively. The experimental equipment and procedures described in this work provide an effective means of producing and handling oxygen sensitive solid solutions. The precipitation kinetics of a number of solid solutions in aquatic systems could be studied by adapting the experimental design developed herein.