D. Tech. Mechanical Engineering. / Discusses how to reduce the negative impacts of petroleum oil based fuels in reciprocating engines on the environment through the use of oxygenated (alcohol) blends, while not deteriorating engine performance. The specific objectives are as follows: To evaluate the performance characteristics of n-butanol-diesel blends: B5, B10 and B20, in a direct-injection turbo-charged diesel engine and to compare findings with a study that was carried out by others (Sayin, 2010). To compare the performance, combustion and emission characteristics of dual alcohol-gasoline with single alcohol-gasoline blends fired in a naturally-aspirated (NA) spark ignition (SI) engine. To compare the combustion and emission characteristics of dual alcohol (methanol-n-butanol-gasoline) blends with single alcohol (methanol-gasoline) blends in a single-cylinder SI engine. To evaluate the combustion and regulated emission characteristics of DF and n-butanol/diesel blends (B5, B10, and B20 where B5 represents 5 % shared volume of n-butanol to 95 % diesel fuel) fired in a high load turbo-charged diesel engine and to compare the findings with a study that was conducted by Raslavicius & Bazaras, (2010).

Dans un contexte de diminution des émissions polluantes émises par les moteurs à combustion interne, le secteur des transports assiste à une amélioration des motorisations mais également à une diversification des carburants pour l’automobile. L’utilisation de ces différents carburants entraîne souvent un impact sur les performances de la combustion. Dans le cas du moteur à allumage commandé, la performance dépend du dégagement d’énergie, image de la vitesse de la combustion, soit du front de flamme consommant le mélange air-carburant. Or toute flamme en expansion est théoriquement soumise à des effets de courbure et de cisaillement, toutes deux contributions de l’étirement. La réponse à l’étirement étant propre à chaque type de mélange air-carburant (lié au carburant proprement dit, à la richesse du mélange, à la dilution …), ce travail de thèse est centré sur la compréhension de l’impact de l’étirement sur les performances des carburants dans les moteurs à allumage commandé. Pour cela, différents mélanges air-carburant similaires du point de vue des propriétés thermodynamiques et des vitesses fondamentales de combustion laminaire mais avec des sensibilités à l’étirement différentes ont été sélectionnés. Ces mélanges ont ensuite été étudiés dans différentes configurations expérimentales et à l’aide de différentes techniques de mesure: moteur monocylindre opaque et à accès optiques, chambre sphérique de combustion turbulente. Les résultats montrent que les propriétés de sensibilités à l’étirement déterminées en régime laminaire comme la longueur de Markstein et le nombre de Lewis sont indicatrices du comportement des mélanges en combustion turbulente, comme dans la chambre de combustion caractéristique des moteurs à allumage commandé, et sont des paramètres à prendre en considération afin de prédire les performances plus globales de ces carburants que ce soit expérimentalement qu’en simulation. / In a context of decreasing pollutant emissions, the transport sector is facing an improvement of engine concept as well as a fuel diversification. The use of these different fuels often involves an impact on the combustion performance itself. In the case of Spark ignition engine, the efficiency is a function of the released heat, image of the combustion speed, i.e. the flame front speed consuming the air-fuel mixture. It is well known that every expanding flame is submitted to flame curvature and strain rate which are both contributors to flame stretch. As the answer of each air-fuel mixture (i.e. the fuel itself, the equivalence ratio, the dilution …) is different to flame stretch, the objective of this work is to understand flame stretch impact on fuel performance in Spark-Ignition engines. To achieve this goal, different fuel-air mixtures with similar unstretched laminar burning speed and thermodynamic properties but different responses to stretch were selected. Those mixtures were then studied with different experimental devices with different measurement techniques: single-cylinder metallic and optical engines, turbulent combustion spherical vessel. Results show that flame stretch sensitivity properties such as Markstein length and Lewis number, determined in laminar combustion regime, are relevant parameters to describe the flame propagation in turbulent combustion as in the combustion chamber of the Spark-Ignition engine and need to be taken into consideration to evaluate global performance of these fuels, experimentally and also in modeling simulation.

De nos jours, la conception de moteurs à combustion interne à allumage commandé exige une consommation de carburant réduite et des émissions polluantes faibles, tout en conservant une performance adéquate. Le coût élevé des essais expérimentaux vient en faveur de l'utilisation de la simulation numérique pour l'évaluation de nouvelles définitions techniques. La modélisation phénoménologique zéro-dimensionnelle de combustion permet d'évaluer les différentes définitions techniques en tenant compte de différents aspects de de la combustion à allumage commandé comme la géométrie, la flamme laminaire et l'impact de la turbulence. Ces modèles calculent également la concentration des espèces de gaz d'échappement. Afin de créer un modèle de combustion, qui pourra décrire la physique de la combustion, les aspects principaux de la combustion pré-mélangée laminaire et turbulent sont identifiés. Trois versions de modèles de combustion typiques sont comparées en termes de description physique du processus de combustion. Le résultat de cette comparaison a indiqué le modèle le plus pertinent (le modèle de densité de surface de flamme). Ce modèle est retenu et il est complété avec la modélisation physique des plusieurs phénomènes qui affectent le taux de dégagement de chaleur. Ces phénomènes sont l’interaction flamme-paroi, les réactions post flamme et l’étirement de flamme. Enfin, le modèle proposé est validé pour plusieurs configurations techniques. Chaque configuration a un impact sur un paramètre spécifique de moteur. Cette analyse montre quels sont les intervalles de confiance et les limitations du modèle proposé. / Nowadays, the design of Spark Ignition internal combustion engines is focused on the reduction of fuel consumption and low pollutant emissions, while conserving an adequate output power. The high cost of experimental testing comes in favor of the use of numerical simulations for the assessment of engine technologies. Phenomenological Zero-Dimensional combustion models allow evaluating various technical concepts since they take into account various aspects of spark ignition combustion such as chamber geometry, laminar flame characteristics (thickness and speed) and the impact of turbulence. Such models also calculate species concentration of the exhaust gases. In order to create a zero-dimensional combustion model, which can be able to describe correctly the physics of combustion, the key aspects of laminar and turbulent premixed combustion are identified. Three versions of typical combustion models are compared in terms of physical description of the combustion process. The result of this comparison indicated the most physically pertinent mod-el (the Flame Surface Density model). This model is retained and is enhanced with physical modeling of the several phenomena, which affect the heat release rate. Those phenomena are the wall-flame interaction, post-flame reactions and flame stretch. Finally, the proposed model is validated for several engine configurations. Each configuration has an impact on a specific engine parameter. This analysis shows which are the confidence intervals and the limitations of the proposed model.

Le moteur à allumage commandé fortement downsizé est une des solutions les plus prometteuses utilisée par les constructeurs automobiles pour augmenter le rendement et réduire les émissions de CO2. Cependant, les conditions thermodynamiques plus sévères rencontrées dans ces moteurs favorisent l’apparition de combustions anormales (cliquetis et rumble) qui sont difficiles à analyser expérimentalement vu les risques encourus par le moteur. La méthode Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) s’est imposée depuis plusieurs années pour l’étude des moteurs à piston dans l’industrie, mais elle n’est pas la plus appropriée pour étudier des phénomènes locaux et sporadiques comme les combustions anormales qui n’affectent pas le cycle moyen simulé en RANS. Grâce à l’utilisation d’un code compressible LES et au développement d’une version améliorée des modèles ECFM-LES (Extended Coherent Flame Model) et TKI (Tabulated Kinetics of Ignition) qui permet un découplage total entre les taux de réaction liés à la propagation de la flamme et à l’auto-inflammation, ces travaux mettent en évidence pour la première fois la capacité de la LES à décrire le phénomène de cliquetis dans une configuration réaliste d’un moteur à allumage commandé. Contrairement aux études précédentes [S. Fontanesi and S. Paltrinieri and A. D’Adamo and G. Cantore and C. Rutland, SAE Int. J. Fuels Lubr., 2013-01-1082, pp. 98-118][G. Lecocq, S. Richard, J.-B. Michel, L. Vervisch, Proc. Combust. Inst. 33 (2011) 3105-3114], une étude quantitative du cliquetis est réalisée grâce à des post-traitements spécifiques et similaires pour les résultats expérimentaux et numériques. La LES est capable de prédire la variabilité de la pression cylindre, la fréquence mais également l’angle moyen d’apparition de l’auto-inflammation sur un balayage d’avance à l’allumage. Une analyse 3D démontre également que le cliquetis se déclenche à différents endroits, mais principalement dans la moitié de la chambre sous les soupapes d’échappement. De plus, l’intensité du cliquetis est proportionnelle à la masse de gaz frais brûlée en auto-inflammation pour les faibles intensités, alors qu’une croissance beaucoup plus forte est observée pour les intensités les plus élevées. Ceci suggère que des facteurs supplémentaires interviennent comme la localisation du cliquetis ou les interactions entre l’acoustique interne et l’auto-inflammation. L’utilisation d’un code LES compressible permet une visualisation directe de ces interactions mettant en évidence que les faibles intensités sont liées à des auto-inflammations locales sans couplage alors qu’une transition de la déflagration vers la détonation est possible en moteur automobile et correspond aux intensités les plus fortes. / Highly boosted spark ignition engines are more and more attractive for car manufacturers in terms of efficiency and CO2 emissions reduction. However, thermodynamic conditions encountered in these engines promote the occurrence of abnormal combustions like knock or super-knock, which are experimentally difficult to analyze due to the risks of engine damages. The Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) method mainly used in industry for piston engines is not the most appropriate as knock does not always affect the mean cycle captured by RANS. Using an accurate LES compressible code and improved versions of ECFM-LES (Extended Coherent Flame Model) and TKI (Tabulated Kinetics of Ignition) models allowing a full uncoupling of flame propagation and auto-ignition reaction rates, this work demonstrates for the first time that LES is able to describe quantitatively knocking combustion in a realistic downsized SI engine configuration. Contrary to previous studies [S. Fontanesi and S. Paltrinieri and A. D’Adamo and G. Cantore and C. Rutland, SAE Int. J. Fuels Lubr., 2013-01-1082, pp. 98-118][G. Lecocq, S. Richard, J.-B. Michel, L. Vervisch, Proc. Combust. Inst. 33 (2011) 3105-3114], a quantified knock analysis is conducted based on a specific post-processing of both numerical and experimental data. LES is able to predict the in-cylinder pressure variability, the knock occurrence frequency and the mean knock onset crank angle for several spark timings. A 3D analysis also demonstrates that knock occurs at random locations, mainly at the exhaust valves side. Knock intensity is found proportional to the fresh gases mass burned by auto-ignition at low knock intensities, while an exponential increase at the highest intensities suggests the influence of additional factors like the knock location in the cylinder or complex behavior of knocking combustion. A direct LES study of acoustic and autoignition interactions is then achieved. The LES visualizations allows showing that low knock intensities are only linked to local autoignition, but a deflagration to detonation transition occurs in such engine operating conditions and is responsible for the highest knock intensities.

O etanol (álcool etílico) tem sido cada vez mais estudado e testado como combustível alternativo para substituição do uso de alguns derivados de petróleo em motores de combustão interna. O presente trabalho procura abordar o emprego do etanol na forma vaporizada em motores do ciclo Otto, objetivando a obtenção de melhores níveis de rendimento térmico total. Deste modo, um motor para teste de octanagem (motor CFR) foi equipado com um vaporizador de álcool instalado no coletor de escapamento, e após uma série de ensaios, várias análises puderam ser feitas. Essas considerações procuraram se ater a aspectos como rendimento térmico, relação ar/combustível, ângulo de avanço da centelha, temperatura de escape, assim como potência e eficiência volumétrica, levando em conta, sempre, a sua influência no funcionamento geral do motor. Ficou constatado que o motor movido a etanol vaporizado apresenta rendimento consideravelmente maior, menor consumo de combustível e funcionamento mais suave que aqueles verificados quando o mesmo motor e alimentado com álcool líquido. / The ethanol (ethyl alcohol) has been studied more and more as alternative fuel to replace some petroleum derivatives for internal combustion engines. The attached study examines the application of vaporized ethanol for Otto cycle engines, searching for better levels of total thermal efficiency. Therefore, an engine for test of octane number (CFR motor) was equipped with an alcohol vaporizer installed inside the escape pipe, and after many experiences, several analysis were made. The various analysis included aspects as thermal efficiency, air/fuel ratio, advance ignition, escape temperature, power and volumetric efficiency, always considering their influence on the operation of the engine. It was confirmed that the engine moved by vaporized ethanol presents higher thermal efficiency, smaller fuel consumption and smoother working than in case of alimentation by liquid alcohol.

O álcool etílico ou etanol vem se tornando, neste novo século, uma importante referência para estudos e aplicações que procuram um combustível alternativo ao uso de derivados de petróleo em motores de combustão interna. Neste trabalho, o uso do etanol vaporizado pelos gases de escape em motores do ciclo Otto busca a obtenção de melhores níveis de rendimento térmico e emissões de poluentes. Assim sendo, um motor de 1.0 litro foi montado em laboratório com um trocador de calor instalado ao lado do coletor de escapamento, e uma série de testes foram feitos, possibilitando uma cuidadosa análise quanto a rendimento térmico, relação ar/álcool, ângulo de avanço da centelha, temperatura de escape e gases de emissão, entre outros aspectos. Conclui-se que o motor a álcool vaporizado, em certos regimes de funcionamento, apresenta rendimento maior e emissões menores que aqueles verificados no motor a álcool líquido. / The ethyl alcohol or ethanol is becoming, in this new century, an important reference for studies and applications that search for an alternative fuel to be used in internal combustion engines, replacing oil derivatives. In this study, an Otto cycle engine is fueled with ethanol vaporized by the exhaust gases, aiming for better levels of thermal efficiency and exhaust emissions. Therefore, a 1.0 liter engine with a heat exchanger connected to the exhaust manifold was prepared in a test bench, and several tests were made, which allowed a criterious analysis about air/alcohol ratio, spark ignition time, exhaust temperature and exhaust emissions, and others. It was concluded that the engine fueled with vaporized alcohol presents, in some operation points, higher thermal efficiency and less emissions compared to the case of engine fueled with liquid alcohol.

Orientador: Rogério Gonçalves dos Santos / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Mecânica / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-23T13:19:35Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Fajgenbaum_Renata_M.pdf: 5459929 bytes, checksum: 05a7fae663d15ca13af6858bbe983761 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013 / Resumo: A motivação em se estudar os fenômenos que acontecem em cada subsistema de um motor de combustão interna ciclo Otto reside na possibilidade de se prever e otimizar seu funcionamento, em especial com os diferentes combustíveis de nova geração que estão sendo inseridos no mercado. O processo de atomização que ocorre nos bicos injetores de combustível, dispositivos integrantes do sistema de injeção eletrônica do motor, apresenta forte relação com a posterior reação de combustão e, por conseguinte, com a eficiência térmica do motor. No presente trabalho, experimentos foram conduzidos para investigar o efeito da temperatura do líquido em parâmetros de atomização de um atomizador do tipo mecânico-centrífugo utilizado em bicos injetores de combustível automotivos. O aparato experimental consistiu de uma bancada de injeção de combustível conectada a um sistema de controle de calor, este com objetivo de variar a temperatura do combustível. Os parâmetros de atomização foram avaliados por meio da técnica de Shadowgraphy, a fim de se medir diâmetro de gotas, distribuição de partículas e campo de velocidades. Gasolina e etanol em diferentes temperaturas foram usados para fornecer variação nas propriedades do líquido, ambos com a mesma pressão de injeção. Os resultados de tamanho de gota foram dados, principalmente, em termos de Sauter Mean Diameter (SMD) e outros diâmetros representativos que se mostraram pertinentes. Todas as medições foram realizadas em duas diferentes distâncias axiais do orifício de descarga. Para as duas distâncias escolhidas, 25 mm e 100 mm, o SMD e a velocidade se mostraram insensíveis à faixa de temperatura testada, devido à baixa variação das propriedades dos combustíveis. Por outro lado, a distribuição das partículas permitiu visualizar o efeito da temperatura nos diâmetros das gotas, mostrando que o aumento da temperatura proporciona diminuição no tamanho das gotas, e o comparativo entre os parâmetros nas duas distâncias axiais permitiu visualizar o efeito da primeira e segunda atomização sobre o spray / Abstract: The motivation in studying the phenomena that happen in each internal combustion engine subsystem lies in the possibility to predict and optimize its operation. The atomization process that occurs in fuel injectors, devices that belong to engine injection system, has a strong relation with the subsequent combustion reaction and thus with the engine thermal efficiency. Experiments were performed to investigate the liquid temperature effect on atomization parameters in an internal combustion engine pressure-swirl atomizer. The experimental apparatus consisted of a flow control rig connected with a heat control system. The flow rig, which is an injection system, was built specifically for that purpose and the heat system goal was to vary the liquid temperature. The atomization parameters were evaluated by means of Shadowgraphy technique in order to measure drop mean diameter, particle size distribution and drop velocity field. Gasoline and ethanol in different temperatures were used to provide variation in liquid properties and the same injection pressure was used for both fuels. The results for drop sizing were expressed in terms of Sauter Mean Diameter (SMD) and the velocity field as well as the particle size distribution measurements were taken in two different axial distances from the nozzle exit. At both distances, 25 mm and 100 mm, SMD and velocity seemed to be insensitive to the range of temperature used because it provided low variation in fuel properties. On the other hand, particle size distribution allowed the visualization of temperature effect on drop diameters, showing that increasing temperatures decrease droplet sizes, and the comparison between two axial distances allowed seeing the effects of first and second atomization on the spray / Mestrado / Termica e Fluidos / Mestra em Engenharia Mecânica

The subject of this diploma thesis is the creation of a spark ignition thermodynamics model using pressure data measured on the actual engine. The model made in Matlab programming language combines Wiebe function for fuel energy release and Woschni correlation for heat transfer between in-cylinder gasses and cylinder walls. The created model contains compression and expansion stroke only, that's why are conditions at the start of compression and total heat addition calculated by measured pressure data from Skoda 1.0 MPI engine. Creation of transparent model by Matlab scripts enables other users to understand the basics of „zero-dimensional“ thermodynamics models properly, which are used by number of commercial solvers such as GT-Power simulation software. First part of this thesis deals with fundamental laws of heat addition and heat transfer, description of equations for its modelling and application. The major section is devoted to Matlab model, where defined input parameters are mentioned, description of model operation and model parameters influence study. Next parts develops issues of combustion pressure measurement and creation of engine simulation by GT-Power software used for comparison with Matlab model. In the thesis conclusion are simulations and actual engine data differences discussed.

<div>The commercial vehicle sector is an important enabler of the economy and is heavily dependent on fossil fuels. In the fight against climate change, reduction of emissions by improving fuel economy is a key step for the commercial vehicle sector. Improving fuel economy deals with reducing energy losses from fuel to the wheels. This study aims to analyze efficiency improvements for two systems that are important in reducing CO2 emissions - hybrid powertrains and natural gas engines. At first, a prototype series hybrid powertrain was analyzed based on on-highway data collected from its powertrain components. Work done per mile by the electrical components of the powertrain showed inefficient battery operation. The net energy delivery of the battery was close to zero at the end of the runs. This indicated battery was majorly used as an energy storage device. Roughly 15% of losses were observed in the power electronics to supply power from battery and generator to the motor. Ability of the hybrid system to capture regenerative energy and utilize it to propel the vehicle is a primary cause for fuel savings. The ability of this system to capture the regenerative energy was studied by modeling the system. The vehicle model demonstrated that the system was capturing most of the theoretically available regenerative energy. The thesis also demonstrates the possibility of reduction of vehicular level losses for the prototype truck. Drag and rolling resistance coefficients were estimated based on two coast down tests conducted. The ratio of captured regenerative to the drive energy energy for estimated drag and rolling resistant coefficients showed that the current system utilizes 4%-9% of its drive energy from the captured regenerative energy. Whereas a low mileage Peterbilt 579 truck could increase the energy capture ratio to 8%-18% for the same drive profile and route. Decrease in the truck’s aerodynamic drag and rolling resistance can potentially improve the fuel benefits.</div><div>The second study aimed to reduce the engine level pumping losses for a natural gas spark ignition engine by cylinder deactivation (CDA). Spark ignited stoichiometric engines with an intake throttle valve encounter pumping/throttling losses at low speed, low loads due to the restriction of intake air by the throttle body. A simulation study for CDA on a six cylinder natural gas engine model was performed in GT- Power. The simulations were ran for steady state operating points with a torque range 25-560 ftlbs and 1600 rpm. Two , three and four cylinders were deactivated in the simulation study. CDA showed significant fuel benefits with increase in brake thermal efficiency and reduction in brake specific fuel consumption depending on the number of deactivated cylinders. The fuel benefits tend to decrease with increase in torque. Engine cycle efficiencies were analyzed to investigate the efficiency improvements. The open cycle efficiency is the main contributor to the overall increase in the brake thermal efficiency. The work done by the engine to overcome the gas exchange during the intake and exhaust stroke is referred to the pumping losses. The reduction in pumping losses cause an improvement in the open cycle efficiency. By deactivating cylinders, the engine meets its low torque requirements by increase in the intake manifold pressure. Increased intake manifold pressure also resulted in reduction of the pumping loop indicating reduced pumping losses. A major limitation of the CDA strategy was ability to meet EGR fraction requirements. The increase in intake manifold pressure also caused a reduction in the delta pressure across the EGR valve. At higher torques with high EGR requirements CDA strategy was unable to meet the required EGR fraction targets. This limited the benefits of CDA to a specific torque range based on the number of deactivated cylinders. Some variable valve actuation strategies were suggested to overcome this challenge and extend the benefits of CDA for a greater torque range.</div><div><br></div>

[pt] O desempenho de veículos automotivos é um importante atributo a ser avaliado quando motores de combustão interna e novos combustíveis estão sendo desenvolvidos. A previsão desse parâmetro também é de suma importância, uma vez que os testes de desempenho de automóveis em pista requerem prazos de realização e altos custos com equipamentos, aluguel da pista, contratação de pessoas e deslocamento de veículos e combustíveis. Além disso, seus resultados são diretamente afetados por irregularidades na superfície da pista e variações nas condições climáticas, como pressão ambiente, temperatura, umidade do ar e velocidade do vento. Assim, este trabalho tem como objetivo utilizar os dados coletados em testes de bancada com um motor de combustão interna com a finalidade de modelar os testes de retomada de velocidade de um automóvel convencional leve. A metodologia proposta simula a força de tração nas rodas a partir do torque medido no dinamômetro do motor ou a partir das curvas de pressão no interior da câmara de combustão com o auxílio de modelos de atrito para motores de ignição por centelha. Para validar o modelo proposto, foi necessário realizar testes de retomada de velocidade com o carro em um dinamômetro de chassi. Além disso, foram utilizadas sete misturas diferentes de etanol e gasolina, e concluiu-se que o etanol anidro puro promoveu maior capacidade de aceleração na maioria dos experimentos, mas apresentou maior consumo de combustível. Os combustíveis hidratados reduziram o desempenho, mas melhoraram a eficiência global. As simulações demonstraram alta precisão em relação ao experimento, com média da diferença do tempo de recuperação da velocidade de 0,51 segundos e desvio padrão de 0,078. Além disso, as simulações de desempenho de aceleração tiveram erros menores que 5,25 por cento. Além disso, a realização desses testes em laboratório tem a vantagem de um maior controle das condições ambientais da sala e dos parâmetros de operação do motor. / [en] Vehicle performance is an important feature to be evaluated when internal combustion engines and new fuels are being developed. Predicting this parameter is also of great significance, once track testing requires long periods of time to be done and high costs with equipment, rental of the track, hiring people and displacement of vehicles and fuels. In addition, their results are directly affected by track surface irregularities and variations in weather conditions such as ambient pressure, temperature, air humidity and wind speed. Thus, this work aims to use collected data in bench tests with an internal combustion engine in order to modeling an automobile speed recovery time. The proposed methodology simulates the traction force on the wheels based on the measured torque in engine dynamometer or from the pressure curves inside the combustion chamber with the aid of friction models for spark ignition engines. In order to validate the proposed model, it became necessary to perform speed recovery tests with the car on a chassis dynamometer. Also, seven different mixtures of ethanol and gasoline were used, and it was concluded that pure anhydrous ethanol promoted a higher acceleration capacity in most of the experiments but it had higher fuel consumption. Hydrated fuels reduced performance but improved global efficiency. The simulations demonstrated a high precision in relation to the experiment, with a speed recovery time diference average of 0.51 seconds and standard deviation of 0.078. Also, the acceleration performance simulations had errors smaller than 5.25 percent. In addition, doing these tests in laboratory has the advantage of a greater control of the room ambient conditions and the engine operating parameters.