La vision est le sens privilégié pour intéragir avec notre environnement. C’est pourquoi le système visuel prend plus d’un tiers du cortex cérébral. Lorsqu’un individu perd sa vision, ce système est dépourvu de sa source première de stimuli. Il subit donc une réorganisation neuronale massive et devient un espace intermodal. Pour ce faire, il recrute des afférences des autres modalités afin que celles-ci prennent en charge les fonctions qui sont normalement soutenues par la vision. Ce phénomène, appelé plasticité cérébrale, est stimulé par la durée de la cécité et par l’entraînement des sens fonctionnels. Ceci fait en sorte que les aveugles développent des supra-capacités dans les modalités fonctionnelles. La substitution sensorielle est un principe qui exploite ce phénomène. Celle-ci permet de substituer un sens déficient par un autre sens. Pour ce faire, des appareils de substitution sensorielle sont développés pour acheminer des informations visuelles via le toucher ou l’audition. Bien que le but de ces appareils est d’offrir une vision fonctionnelle aux aveugles, la problématique principale demeure l’indépendance de navigation des aveugles. Cependant, ces appareils sont très peu appréciés par les aveugles parce qu’ils sont inaccessibles et qu’ils fournissent un signal complexe qui demande un entraînement intense et une charge cognitive trop élevée. Dans ce projet, nous avons évalué le potentiel d’un nouvel appareil de substitution sensorielle qui fournit des informations strictement pertinentes à la navigation spatiale sous la forme de sons spatialisés horizontalement. Pour ce faire, des participants aveugles précoces, aveugles tardifs et des voyants aux yeux bandés ont été testé pour leurs habiletés à détecter et éviter des obstacles à l’aide de l’appareil dans des conditions expérimentales de détection et d’évitement d’obstacles. L’étude a démontré qu’il est possible d’utiliser cet appareil en tant qu’aide à la navigation et que ce système est utilisé plus efficacement par les groupes d’aveugles. / Vision is the preferred sense for interacting with our environment. This is why the visual system takes up more than a third of the cerebral cortex. When an individual loses his vision, this system misses its primary source of stimuli. It therefore undergoes a massive neuronal reorganization and becomes an intermodal space. To do so, it recruits afferents from other modalities so that they take over the functions that are normally mediated by vision. This phenomenon, known as cerebral plasticity, is stimulated by the experience of blindness as well as by the training of the functional senses. This causes the blind to develop supra-abilities in their functional modalities. Sensory substitution is a principle that exploits this phenomenon. It makes it possible to substitute a deficient modality with another modality. To help the blind, sensory substitution devices are being developed to convey visual information via touch or hearing. Although these devices attempt to provide functional vision for the blind, the main issue they try to address is the improvement of the navigational independency of the blind. However, these devices are very little appreciated by the blind since they are inaccessible and provide a complex signal that requires intense training and too high of a cognitive load. Therefore, in this project, we evaluated the potential of a new sensory substitution device that provides information strictly relevant to spatial navigation in the form of horizontally spatialized sounds. To do so, early blind , late blind and sighted blindfolded individuals were tested for their ability to detect and avoid obstacles using the device under experimental conditions. The study showed that it is possible to use this device as a navigation aid and that this system is used more effectively by the blind.

The Nogo-A protein belongs among the most important regulatory molecules in the brain, regulating development of neuronal and glial cells, axon guidance and adult synaptic plasticity. Although it has been studied mainly as an obstacle to axon regeneration after CNS injury, it plays a role in many pathological conditions, including neurodegenerative and neuropsychiatric diseases. This work offers a literature review of the current knowledge about functions of Nogo-A and related proteins, and then recapitulates the results of experiments focused on the impact on decreased expression of Nogo-A on behavior in a transgenic rat model. The most important finding is that the Carousel Maze performance, tapping higher cognitive functions such as cognitive coordination and cognitive flexibility, is remarkably impaired in this model, while other cognitive functions, such as spatial navigation and both spatial and non-spatial memory are spared in the Nogo-A deficient rats. The results are discussed in the context of a hypothesis linking Nogo-A mutations or abnormal expression to human schizophrenia. We conclude that the Nogo-A deficient rats constitute a very promising animal model of schizophrenia and deserve further attention. Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)

The Nogo-A protein belongs among the most important regulatory molecules in the brain, regulating development of neuronal and glial cells, axon guidance and adult synaptic plasticity. Although it has been studied mainly as an obstacle to axon regeneration after CNS injury, it plays a role in many pathological conditions, including neurodegenerative and neuropsychiatric diseases. This work offers a literature review of the current knowledge about functions of Nogo-A and related proteins, and then recapitulates the results of experiments focused on the impact on decreased expression of Nogo-A on behavior in a transgenic rat model. The most important finding is that the Carousel Maze performance, tapping higher cognitive functions such as cognitive coordination and cognitive flexibility, is remarkably impaired in this model, while other cognitive functions, such as spatial navigation and both spatial and non-spatial memory are spared in the Nogo-A deficient rats. The results are discussed in the context of a hypothesis linking Nogo-A mutations or abnormal expression to human schizophrenia. We conclude that the Nogo-A deficient rats constitute a very promising animal model of schizophrenia and deserve further attention. Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)

Research on perception and characterisation of African cities is generally divided between two theses. The first, known as Euro-centric because of its analytical capacity based exclusively on the European cities model results on image of African cities as elusive, unknowable, informal entities. Faced with this vision, a postcolonial vision has emerged urban studies, calling for a change of paradigm. The latter's main objective is to revisit these criticisms about African cities through an approach that refutes these characterisations by placing at the heart of the debate the way in which African cities are perceived and experienced by their inhabitants and by looking closely at the often-inventive practices of these populations. To achieve this objective, this thesis focuses on the social universe of taxi drivers using the concept of socio-spatial navigation conceived as a form of mobility in the wake of New mobility paradigm. The methodology combines an ethnographic approach which consisted of participant observation to understand the practices of the populations and an inductive approach (Grounded Theory) to identify the ideas and perspectives of the actors. To this end, 125 taxi drivers, 50 tricycle drivers and 3 bus drivers corresponding to 5% of their self-declared were monitored. The results about the use of collective taxis, buses and tricycles revealed a number of tensions. These tensions are between what is legal, i.e. authorised by the authority, and what is illegal (taxi using gas, tricycle as a mean of transportation), i.e. forbidden by the authority, but generated by the people (from below) in close relation to their daily reality and above all as a response to the gap between the institutional planning and management model and their own city. This situation brings out a pattern of a moral economy of mobility The second category of results relates to spatial knowledge of the city. The study revealed that the city of Bobo-Dioulasso is an entity that can be known and understood through a learning process. This process consists of memorising two types of landmarks (visible and invisible) through practical experiences and information received from other city dwellers. Furthermore, the games played by the actors during collective taxi ride revealed that the taxi is not just a simple means of transportation. It is a place of important interactions. Depending on the taxi driver's skills of Know-how and Know how to be, the taxi space oscillates between a non-place, non non-place and a heterotopia of deviance. / La recherche sur la perception et la caractérisation des villes africaines est globalement partagée entre deux thèses. La première qualifiée d’euro-centrique par ses analyses qui s’inspirent exclusivement du modèle européen abouti à des images de la ville africaine comme des entités insaisissables, inconnaissables, informelles, etc. Face à cette vision a émergé une vision postcoloniale qui appel à un changement de paradigme dans les études urbaines. Cette dernière a pour objectif majeur de revisiter ces critiques sur la ville africaine par une approche qui réfute ces caractérisations en replaçant au cœur du débat la façon dont les villes africaines sont perçues et vécues par les habitants et en regardant de près les pratiques souvent inventives de ces populations. Pour atteindre cet objectif, cette thèse s’intéresse à l’univers social des chauffeurs de taxi à l’aide du concept de la navigation socio-spatiale conçu comme une forme de mobilité dans le sillage de la New mobility paradigm. La méthodologie combine une approche ethnographique qui a consisté à une observation participante pour comprendre les pratiques des populations et une approche inductive (Grounded Theory) pour cerner les idées et les perspectives des acteurs. A cet effet, ce sont 125 chauffeurs de taxi, 50 chauffeurs de tricycles et 3 chauffeurs de bus correspondant à 5% de leurs effectifs déclarés par les acteurs eux-mêmes qui ont été suivis. Les résultats sur l’utilisation des taxis collectifs, du bus et des tricycles ont fait ressortir un certain nombre de tension. Ces tensions se situent entre ce qui est légal, c’est-à-dire autorisé par l’autorité et ce qui est illégale (taxi à gaz, tricycle transportant des passagers) donc interdit par cette autorité, mais généré par les populations (par le bas) en étroite relation avec leur réalité quotidienne et surtout en guise de réponse à l’écart entre le modèle de planification et de gestion institutionnelle et leur ville à eux. Cette situation fait ressortir un schéma d’une économie morale de la mobilité. Les résultats relatifs à la connaissance spatiale de la ville. L’étude a révélé que la ville de Bobo-Dioulasso est une entité que l’on peut connaitre, saisir à travers un apprentissage de la ville. Ce processus consiste à mémoriser deux types de repères (visibles et invisibles) à travers des expériences pratiques et des informations reçues d'autres citadins. Par ailleurs, les jeux d’acteurs lors des déplacements en taxi collectif ont permis de révéler que le taxi n’est pas seulement un simple moyen de déplacement. Il est le lieu d’importantes interactions. En fonction des compétences de savoir-faire et de savoir être du chauffeur de taxi, l’espace du taxi oscille entre un non-lieu, au non non-lieu à une hétérotopie de déviance.

L’adversité précoce présente une variété de conséquences nuisibles d’ordre cognitif, émotionnel, comportemental ou reliées à la santé. Plusieurs formes d’adversité durant l’enfance peuvent perturber le développement et générer du stress. L’adversité précoce est associée à de moindres volumes hippocampiques, ce qui pourrait être expliqué par l’effet neurotoxique de taux élevés de glucocorticoïdes générés par du stress chronique et l’influence d’expériences précoces et aversives. Les stratégies de navigation représentent la méthode selon laquelle un individu navigue dans l’environnement. En explorant un nouvel environnement, on peut choisir d’utiliser une stratégie spatiale dépendant de l’hippocampe basée sur une carte cognitive ou une stratégie réponse dépendant du noyau caudé basée sur une succession de virages. Nous voulions vérifier s’il existe une association entre les stratégies de navigation et l’adversité familiale précoce. Nous avons donc supposé que les individus utilisant une stratégie spatiale durant le Labyrinthe Virtuel 4/8 (une tâche de navigation à double solution) obtiendraient des scores d’adversité familiale précoce plus faibles que ceux employant une stratégie réponse. Nous supposions aussi que les enfants ayant des scores d’adversité familiale plus élevés présenteraient une performance de mémoire réduite comparativement à ceux aux scores plus faibles. Nous avons observé que les enfants avec un score élevé d’adversité familiale avaient une performance de mémoire réduite dans le Labyrinthe Virtuel 4/8 lorsque comparés au groupe à faible score. Cela soutient que la mémoire serait négativement affectée par l’adversité familiale vécue précocement. Cela suggère aussi l’existence potentielle d’une interaction plus complexe entre l’adversité précoce et les systèmes de mémoire. / Experiencing early adversity presents many varied detrimental consequences, whether they be cognitive, emotional, behavioral or health related. Various forms of adverse manifestations can perturb a child’s development and generate stress. Early adversity shows a lot of associations with lesser hippocampal volumes, which could be explained by the neurotoxic effect of elevated glucocorticoid levels due to chronic stress and the influence of adverse experience at an early age. Navigation strategies represent an individual’s method to navigate in an environment. When exploring a new environment, they may choose to use a hippocampus-dependent spatial strategy, which relies on a cognitive map, or a caudate nucleus-dependent response strategy based on a succession of turns. We wanted to verify if there was an association between navigation strategies and early family adversity. We hypothesised that individuals who use a spatial strategy on the 4/8 Virtual Maze (a dual-solution navigation task) would have a lesser cumulative score of early family adversity. It was also supposed that our group with a high risk of family adversity would manifest a reduced memory performance. We found that our group with a high risk of family adversity had shown reduced memory performance in the 4/8 Virtual Maze when compared to the low-risk group. This supported our initial supposition that memory would be affected by family adversity during early childhood. Our findings support the detrimental effect of early family adversity on memory performance. This also suggests the lingering of a more complex interaction between early adversity and the memory systems.

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This thesis attempts to analyze spatial perception for navigation in a virtual arena and to cover neuronal basics of distance estimation. For this purpose, we created a virtual version of Hidden goal task which is an analogy to Morris water maze. The thesis presents results of the experiment with removing orientation cues in a circular arena. The aim of the experiment was to determine, if the assumption of Cognitive mapping theory about orientation cues equivalence is valid for our arena. Experiment outcome indicates that the accuracy of goal position estimation is not only influenced by the number of cues but also by the individual hierarchy of the cues. The hierarchy emerges from the distance of the cue from the goal, although in some cases it can be affected by an outstanding identity of the particular cue. These findings are a basis for the experiment utilizing the functional magnetic resonance method to determine neuronal basics for estimating distances in virtual arena in both the egocentric and allocentric reference frame. Results support the findings of the cited papers about the participation of occipital and parietal lobe in estimating object distance in space. Comparison of the two reference frames showed that whereas the egocentric estimation is related to activity in premotor cortex,...

The basal ganglia (BG) are a group of brain nuclei situated deep in the cerebral hemispheres. While BG were primarily associated with motor functions, in recent years there has been an increasing evidence that BG are also significantly involved in a wide range of non-motor functions. This work focused on some of the non-motor symptoms associated with two typical basal ganglia disorders: Parkinson's disease (PD) and Huntington's disease (HD). The first study concerned spatial navigation impairment in patients with HD. Their spatial navigation skills were tested using the Blue Velvet Arena, technique evaluating spatial navigation in real space, capable to selectively differentiate between two components of spatial navigation - allocentric (environment-oriented) and egocentric (self-oriented). Allocentric navigation is linked to hippocampal function, whereas egocentric navigation is usually associated with striatum, a structure predominantly affected in HD. We found that spatial navigation is not significantly affected in the early stages of HD and that in more advanced stages, when spatial navigation is already impaired, there is no significant difference between allocentric and egocentric navigation impairment. We speculate that the striatal involvement does not contribute to the impairment of the...

La maladie d’Alzheimer (MA) est une pathologie neurodégénérative communément caractérisée par une perte progressive de la mémoire. L’étiologie de la MA demeure incertaine à ce jour ce qui complique l’élaboration de stratégies thérapeutiques permettant de l’éradiquer. L’accumulation des échecs thérapeutiques pourrait en partie s’expliquer par le fait que l’hypothèse amyloïde, qui met en avant l’implication prépondérante du peptide bêta-amyloïde (Aβ) dans la physiopathologie de la MA, serait incomplète. En utilisant un modèle murin transgénique de la MA, la souris TgCRND8, j’ai pu compléter l’hypothèse amyloïde en proposant l’implication, en plus de l’Aβ, du fragment carboxy-terminal bêta (β-CTF). Ces deux métabolites amyloïdogéniques de l’APP seraient responsables de l’altération de formes différentes de mémoire. Le dosage de ces métabolites dans l’hippocampe, suite au traitement chronique des souris avec un inhibiteur de β ou de γ-secrétase, a mis en évidence que le β-CTF serait responsable de l’atteinte de la mémoire impliquée dans la détection du remplacement d’un objet, alors que l’Aβ perturberait la mémoire permettant la détection du déplacement d’un objet. Ces travaux suggèrent qu’il serait judicieux de développer de nouvelles stratégies thérapeutiques qui diminuent à la fois les niveaux cérébraux des deux fragments amyloïdogéniques, le β-CTF et l’Aβ. / Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative pathology commonly characterized by a progressive memory loss. To these days, AD’s etiology has remained unclear which complicates the development of therapeutic strategies enabling to eradicate the pathology. The accumulation of therapeutic failures could partly be explained by the fact that the amyloid hypothesis, which highlights the leading involvement of the amyloid beta peptide (Aβ) in the physiopathology of AD, could be incomplete. Using a transgenic mouse model of AD, the TgCRND8 mice strain, I expanded the amyloid hypothesis, suggesting the involvement of the beta carboxy-terminal fragment (β-CTF), in addition to Aβ. These two amyloidogenic metabolites could be responsible for the alteration of different forms of memory. The dosage of these metabolites, after mice chronic treatment with either a β- or a γ-secretase inhibitor, highlighted the fact that β-CTF could be responsible for the deterioration of the memory involved in the detection of the replacement of an object. As for Aβ, it could disrupt the memory allowing the detection of the displacement of an object. This work suggests that it would be judicious to develop therapeutic strategies reducing brain levels of both amyloid fragments, β-CTF and Aβ.

Schizophrenia is a severe neuropsychiatric disorder characterized by positive, negative and cognitive symptoms with poor functional outcomes, placing an enormous burden on the individual, caregivers and society. Although deficits in cognition are an integral part of the disease and the best predictor of functional outcomes, there is as yet no established treatment addressing them. Avoidance of a hidden place on a continuously rotating arena (Carousel) requires cognitive control and is a rodent model of cognitive coordination of information from dissociated spatial frames, which is impaired in acute pharmacological and neurodevelopmental model of schizophrenia. Cognitive training on the Carousel during adolescence alleviates adult cognitive deficit in a neurodevelopmental model of schizophrenia and improves neural coordination (oscilations in the beta and gamma band), which is thought to be necessary for cognition. We examined if cognitive training during adolescence eliminates the deficit in neuronal coordination observed in adult rats after acute systemic NMDA receptor antagonist MK-801 (0.15 mg/kg). During adolescence, rats were either trained in spatial avoidance on Carousel or merely handled. As adults, rats received two 5-min exploration sessions in the same (A/A) or in two distinct...