The aims of this study were to develop a detailed record of the tetranychid mites of Kenya and Tanzania, to assess the diversity of tetranychid mites in the east African biodiversity hotspots and to determine female characters that can be used to identify the species of the economically important Tetranychus species found in these countries. The genetic diversity of the most abundant Tetranychus species (Tetranychus evansi Baker & Pritchard) was also assessed. The Tetranychidae (Acari) contain some of the most important pest species of phytophagous mites worldwide. Out of the almost 1,300 species in this family, 256 species are known to occur in Africa. Before this study, ten species had been reported from Kenya and only three in Tanzania. The genus Tetranychus to which most of the pest species belongs to, can only be identified to species level by the use of the male aedeagus that is often difficult to visualize. The natural habitat, the Eastern Arc Mountains and East African Coastal Forests in Kenya and Tanzania is recognized as biodiversity hotspots but prior to his study, information on Tetranychidae in these hotspots was lacking. Thus, no information on the natural mite fauna composition was available. In Kenya, 18 tetranychid mite species from various plant hosts have been recorded. Four of these species belong to the subfamily Bryobiinae and the other 14 to the subfamily Tetranychinae. Eight of the mite species identified belong to the genera Bryobia, Petrobia, Peltanobia, Paraplonobia, Duplanychus, Eutetranychus and Mixonychus and are being reported for the first time in Kenya while the other ten had already been reported before. For Tanzania, six species belonging to the genera Tetranychus, Eutetranychus and Mixonychus are being reported for the first time from Tanzania and other three had been reported before. A list of these species, their brief descriptions as well as a key for identification is provided. A redescription of Peltanobia erasmusi including previously undescribed male characters is given. Schizotetranychus kwalensis sp. nov. from Kenya and Brevinychus meshacki from Tanzania were collected on Omorcarpum kirkii (Fabaceae) from Matuga, Kwale district, Kenya and Philonoptera eriocalyx (Fabaceae) from Sangasanga, Mvomero district, Tanzania respectively and described. Revised keys of Brevinychus and of the African species of Schizotetranychus are also provided. Tetranychus evansi Baker & Pritchard ranked highest in abundance amongst all the tetranychid mites collected. It was found in four out of five fragments of the hotspot, and it survives in a wide range of altitudes from as low as 123 m to 1655 m. Molecular examination of T. evansi collected from Kenya and Tanzania and on different host plants revealed an identical DNA sequence of the mitochondrial COI fragment and 19 identical microsatellite alleles suggesting a single introduction of this species to this part of East Africa. Female characters of four Tetranychus species found in Kenya were explored using the scanning electron microscope. Differences in the distances between the duplex setae of species belonging to the desertorum group (Tetranychus evansi Baker & Pritchard and Tetranychus ludeni Zacher) and those grouped by Flechtmann and Knihinicki (2002) under group 9 (Tetranychus neocaledonicus Andre and Tetranychus urticae Koch) were observed. The dorsal striae of T. evansi, T. neocaledonicus and T. urticae have semicircular lobes whereas those on the dorsal striae of T. ludeni are triangular. / Thesis (PhD (Environmental Sciences))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012.

The two-spotted spider mite (TSM), Tetranychus urticae Koch, is an important pest of many greenhouse and field crops worldwide. The development of resistance in TSM populations to chemical acaricides, allied with public health concerns about pesticide residues, has motivated the search for alternative control measures to suppress the pest. Hyphomycetous fungi are promising agents for mite control and the fungus Beauveria bassiana (Bb) (Balsamo) Vuillemin was investigated in this study as a biocontrol agent. The principal objectives of this study comprised: a) screening Bb strains for their pathogenicity against T. urticae; b) testing the effect of adjuvants on the efficacy of Bb; c) studying the effect of plant type on persistence of Bb and the efficacy of control of Bb against T. urticae; d) evaluating the field efficacy of Bb applications against T. urticae; e) testing the compatibility of Bb with selected fungicides; and f) assessing the synergy between Bb and soluble silicon for T. urticae control. Screening bioassays of sixty-two strains of Bb identified the two most effective strains, PPRI 7315 (R289) and PPRI 7861 (R444), that caused mortality levels of more than 80% of adult mites at 9 d post-inoculation with 2 × 108 conidia ml-1. These strains performed significantly better than the Bb commercial strain PPRI 5339, in laboratory bioassays. The two strains also attacked mite eggs, causing 53.4% and 55.5% reduction in egg hatchability at 2 × 108 conidia ml-1 respectively. However, PPRI 7861 showed relatively higher production of conidia in culture and was, therefore, selected for further trials under greenhouse and field conditions. Greenhouse evaluations of the effects of two adjuvants (Break-thru® and a paraffin oil-based emulsion) on efficacy of Bb demonstrated a higher efficacy of the biocontrol agent (BCA) when it was applied with Break-thru® or the oil solution than with water alone. Moreover, Bb conidia applied in Break-thru® solution resulted in greater control of TSM than conidia applied in the mineral oil. There was also a dose-response effect and the control of TSM by Bb increased when the concentration of conidia was increased. The control of TSM by Bb in beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L), cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.), eggplant (Solanum melongena L.), maize (Zea mays L.) and tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) was tested in greenhouse trials. On these crops, the persistence of conidia declined over time. The rate of decline was significantly higher on maize. However, TSM mortality was positively correlated with the amount of conidia deposited on leaves immediately after spraying, rather than their persistence over time. Higher levels of mortality of TSM due to Bb application were observed on beans, cucumber and eggplants, suggesting that the type of crop must be taken into consideration when Bb is applied as a BCA. Field efficacy of Bb against mites was evaluated in two trials on eggplants. Based on assessment of population densities of mites and leaf damage assessments; both trials showed that the strain PPRI 7861 controlled TSM in the field. Two commonly used fungicides, azoxystrobin and flutriafol, were investigated in vitro tests on culture medium and laboratory bioassays on detached bean leaves (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) for their effects on Bb. Azoxystrobin (a strobilurin) was less harmful to Bb while flutriafol was found to be inhibitory. Another important finding of this study was the substantial enhancement of Bb efficacy by soluble silicon. When Bb was combined with soluble Si, the control of TSM was better than when either of the two products was applied alone. Moreover, application of soluble Si as a plant fertilizer in hydroponic water nutrient increased accumulation of peroxidase, polyphenoloxidase and phenylalanine ammonia-lyase enzymes in leaves of plants infested with TSM. Increased activity of these defense enzymes in leaves deters feeding behaviour of mites. We suggested that feeding stress renders them susceptible to Bb infection, which would explain the synergy observed between the two agents. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2009.

Les performances du végétal et des arthropodes dont il constitue le microhabitat dépendent des températures de surface foliaire. Celles-ci peuvent dévier fortement de la température de l’air et présenter des niveaux d’hétérogénéité différents selon l'échelle spatiale considérée. La feuille atténue les températures extrêmes en rapprochant son amplitude de variation journalière de celle de la température de l’air. Cependant, cette réponse diminue l’hétérogénéité des températures de surface foliaire et les capacités de thermorégulation comportementale des arthropodes à l'échelle de la feuille. Les températures moyennes de surface foliaire atténuent peu le réchauffement, et déterminent localement la performance photosynthétique du végétal. De l’échelle de la feuille à celle de la canopée, les plantes montrent des réponses différentes au réchauffement. Ce type de changement d'échelle est primordial pour améliorer notre compréhension de l'impact des changements climatiques. / Plant performance and leaf-dwelling arthropods are impacted by leaf surface temperatures. Leaf surface temperatures can show important deviation from air temperature and present different levels of heterogeneity depending on the spatial scale. The leaf buffers temperature extremes by getting closer in amplitude to air temperature. However, this physiological response decreases the heterogeneity of temperatures at the leaf surface and the opportunities for arthropods to behavioraly thermoregulate in this microclimate. Mean temperatures at the leaf surface show low buffering abilities in response to warming and locally determine photosynthetic performance. From the leaf to the canopy scale, plants show different responses to warming and scaling is crucial to increase our understanding of the impact of global warming.