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Ultrasound has been widely used in medical diagnostic imaging to image soft tissues. Compared with other methods, ultrasound is superior with no ionizing-radiation, easy portability, low cost, and the capability to provide elasticity information. Conventional ultrasound images provide distorted image information when the ultrasound beam is not normal to the bone structures. In this thesis, we present two imaging algorithms: reverse time migration (RTM) and split-step Fourier migration (SSFM), to image long bones using ultrasound. The methods are tested using simulated data sets. The reconstructed images show accurate cortical thickness measurement and provide the correct fracture dip. The images also clearly illustrate the healing process of a 1-mm wide crack with different in-filled tissue velocities simulating fracture healing. Two in-vitro examples using fractured bones are also presented. The study has showed that the migration methods have great potential to quantify bone fractures and monitor the fracture healing process.

La simulation numérique de la propagation des ondes électromagnétiques sur de longues distances et au-dessus de terrain a ces dernières années reçu une attention particulière du fait de son fort impact sur les systèmes radar et de télécommunications. Habituellement, il est considéré une modélisation bidimensionnelle pour traiter ces problématiques, cependant par une telle approche il est impossible de considérer les effets transverses au plan vertical passant par l'émetteur et le récepteur ainsi que la dépolarisation de l'onde. Pour pallier ces problèmes, une approche tridimensionnelle doit obligatoirement être considérée.<br /><br />La méthode de modélisation proposée est basée sur l'Equation Parabolique 3D (EP3D). Deux résolutions de celle-ci ont été considérées : nommées Split-Step Fourier (SSF) et Différences Finies (DF). La résolution SSF est basée sur une décomposition en un spectre angulaire d'ondes planes par l'intermédiaire d'une transformée de Fourier. La résolution de l'EP3D par DF développée utilise quant à elle un algorithme dit de Crank-Nicholson. Afin d'optimiser le temps de calcul et l'espace mémoire nécessaire, la méthode des directions alternées a été appliquée pour résoudre cette équation de propagation. Toutes deux ont été couplées avec la condition aux limites de Léontovich pour pouvoir prendre en compte le relief 3D.<br /><br />Ces deux méthodes ont été implémentées et validées sur différents cas tests canoniques. On a ainsi pu constater la capacité de ces méthodes à modéliser les phénomènes de réflexion, diffraction et réfraction. Celles-ci ont ensuite été appliquées au-dessus de scènes tridimensionnelles réalistes. Ces applications ont permis de comparer les deux méthodes développées ainsi que de mettre en relief les effets 3D dus au terrain et souligné les avantages d'une résolution tridimensionnelle.

This document describes radar propagation modelling using split step parabolic wave equation (PWE) method. A computer program using Fourier split-step (FSS) marching technique is developed for predicting the electromagnetic wave propagation in troposphere. The program allows specification of frequency, polarization, antenna radiation pattern, antenna altitude, elevation angle and terrain profile. Both staircase terrain modelling and conformal mapping are used to model the irregular terrain. Mixed Fourier transform is used to implement the impedance boundary conditions. The conditions and the limits of different approximations are stated. The propagation code, RPPT (Radar Propagation Prediction Tool) is developed in Matlab 6.0 with a user friendly GUI. Different PWE methods can be selected in RPPT for different applications. The results are presented as one-way propagation factor and path loss in decibels versus range.Comparisons are made between different PWE techniques and other propagation models to demonstrate the ability and accuracy of the present model to accommodate various situations. It is assumed that the reader is familiar with the tropospheric propagation.

Radars are used for range estimation of distant objects. They operate on the principle of sending electromagnetic pulses that are reflected off a target. This leads to the propagation of electromagnetic waves over large distances. As the waves propagate, they are affected by several aspects that decrease the performance of the radar system. In this master thesis, we derive a mathematical model that describes electromagnetic propagation in the troposphere. The model developed is based on a parabolic equation and uses the split-step Fourier method for its numerical solution. Using the model, we estimate the influence of a varying, complex, refractive index of the atmosphere, different lossy materials in the ground, terrain, and oceans. The terrain is described using a piecewise linear shift map method. The modelling of the ocean is done using a novel model which is a combination of terrain for large swells and Miller surface roughness for smaller waves, both based on a Pierson-Moskowitz sea spectrum. The model is validated and found to agree very well, with results found in the literature.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / This thesis presents an evaluation methodology to optimize parameters in a model of propagation of electromagnetic waves in the troposphere. The propagation model is based on parabolic equations solved by Split-Step Fourier. This propagation model shows good efficiency and rough terrain situations where the refractivity varies with distance. The search for optimal parameters in models involving electromagnetic waves requires a large computational cost, especially in large search spaces. Aiming to reduce the computational cost in determining the parameter values that maximize the field strength at a given position of the observer was developed an application called EP-AG. The application has two main modules. The first is the propagation module that estimates the value of the electric field in the area of a given terrain irregularities and varying with the refractivity with distance. The second is the optimization module which finds the optimum antenna height and frequency of operation that lead the field to the maximum value of the land in a certain position. Initially performed only the propagation module using different profiles of land and refractivity. The results shown by contours and profile field shown the efficiency of the model. Subsequently to evaluate the optimization by genetic algorithms were used two different settings as well as the irregularity of the terrain, refractivity profile and size of the search space. In each of these settings picked up a point observation in which the value of the electric field served as a metric for comparison. At this point, we determined the optimal values of the parameters by the brute force method and the genetic algorithm optimization. The results showed that for small search spaces virtually no reduction of the computational cost, however for large search spaces, the decrease was very significant and relative errors much smaller than those obtained by the method of brute force. / Esta tese apresenta uma avaliação metodológica para otimizar parâmetros em um modelo de propagação de ondas eletromagnéticas na troposfera. O modelo de propagação é baseado em equações parabólicas resolvidas pelo Divisor de Passos de Fourier. Esse modelo de propagação apresenta boa eficiência em terrenos irregulares e situações em que a refratividade varia com a distância. A busca de parâmetros ótimos em modelos que envolvem ondas eletromagnéticas demanda um grande custo computacional, principalmente em grandes espaços de busca. Com o objetivo de diminuir o custo computacional na determinação dos valores dos parâmetros que maximizem a intensidade de campo em uma determinada posição do observador, foi desenvolvido um aplicativo denominado EP-AG. O aplicativo possui dois módulos principais. O primeiro é o módulo de propagação, que estima o valor do campo elétrico na área de um determinado terreno com irregularidades e com a refratividade variando com a distância. O segundo é o módulo de otimização, que encontra o valor ótimo da altura da antena e da frequência de operação que levam o campo ao valor máximo em determinada posição do terreno. Inicialmente, executou-se apenas o módulo de propagação utilizando diferentes perfis de terrenos e de refratividade. Os resultados apresentados através de contornos e de perfis de campo mostraram a eficiência do modelo. Posteriormente, para avaliar a otimização por algoritmos genéticos, foram utilizadas duas configurações bem diferentes quanto à irregularidade do terreno, perfil de refratividade e tamanho de espaço de busca. Em cada uma dessas configurações, escolheu-se um ponto observação no qual o valor do campo elétrico serviu de métrica para comparação. Nesse ponto, determinou-se os valores ótimos dos parâmetros pelo método da força bruta e pela otimização por algoritmo genético. Os resultados mostraram que, para pequenos espaços de busca, praticamente não houve redução do custo computacional, porém, para grandes espaços de busca, a redução foi muito significativa e com erros relativos bem menores do que os obtidos pelo método da força bruta. / Doutor em Ciências