Orientador: Flavia Maria Netto / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia de Alimentos / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-07T15:37:07Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Faria_Mariza_M.pdf: 1934217 bytes, checksum: d2b5831163c6c6be9fad1f62fd40b3fc (MD5) Previous issue date: 2006 / Resumo: Peptídeos inibidores da enzima conversora de angiotensina (ECA) presentes em alimentos têm despertado o interesse de muitos pesquisadores, pois há evidências que sua ingestão, possa auxiliar na prevenção e no tratamento não medicamentoso da hipertensão. O potencial da atividade anti-hipertensiva de peptídeos tem sido avaliado principalmente com relação à capacidade de inibir a ECA, que tem papel fundamental na regulação da pressão arterial. Desta forma, inúmeros estudos têm focado a produção e o isolamento de peptídeos com atividade inibidora da ECA a partir de proteínas de diferentes fontes alimentícias, embora ainda pouco se conhece sobre a biodisponibilidade destes peptídeos. O presente estudo teve como objetivos: avaliação da influência das enzimas do trato gastrintestinal na atividade inibitória da ECA de hidrolisados protéicos e sua correlação com a atividade anti-hipertensiva avaliada in vivo e avaliar o efeito antihipertensivo e na função renal de hidrolisados de diferentes fontes. Utilizou-se hidrolisados comerciais de diferentes fontes protéicas: caseína (Hyprol 8052), soro de leite (Hyprol 3301) e glutén de trigo (Hyprol 4137) fornecidos pela Kerry Bio-Science; caseina (CE90ACE), soro de leite (WE80BG) e soja (SE50BT), doados pela DMV International e colágenos hidrolisados de origem bovina e suína (Gelita South América). Os colágenos hidrolisados foram fracionados em sistema de ultrafiltração com membranas de cut off de 30 a 50 kDa, 5 a 8 kDa e 1 a 2 kDa, obtendo-se os permeados P1 (PM< 30-50kDa), P2 (PM< 5-8kDa) e P3 (PM< 1-2 kDa), respectivamente. Os hidrolisados foram caracterizados físico-quimicamente e em seguida analisados quanto à capacidade de inibição da ECA antes e após a digestão gastrintestinal in vitro, e atividade anti-hipertensiva em ratos espontaneamente hipertensos (SHR) por via oral. Os produtos que apresentaram as melhores atividades in vivo foram avaliados quanto à sua influência na função renal dos animais e efeito hipotensor prolongado na pressão arterial de SHR, em experimento crônico. A hidrólise gastrintestinal in vitro promoveu efeito variável sobre a atividade inibitória da ECA. Os hidrolisados de maior peso molecular, colágenos hidrolisados bovino e suíno, apresentaram aumento significativo da potência inibitória da ECA. Por outro lado, observou-se redução na capacidade de inibir a ECA dos hidrolisados com menor peso molecular, como os hidrolisados da caseína (Hyprol 8052 e CE90ACE), soro de leite (Hyprol 3301) e soja (SE50BT). Os colágenos hidrolisados bovino e suíno e suas frações, tanto antes como após a digestão gastrintestinal in vitro apresentaram menor potência inibitória da ECA que os demais hidrolisados. Todos os hidrolisados anali sados foram capazes de induzir redução significativa da pressão arterial de SHR, exceto os colágenos hidrolisados bovino (CHB) e suíno (CHS) não fracionados. Os hidrolisados do soro de leite (WE80BG), caseína (CE90ACE), fração P1 do colágeno bovino e suíno (CHBP1 e CHSP1) e a fração P3 do colágeno hidrolisado suíno (CHSP3) foram os mais eficientes em reduzir a pressão arterial de SHR. A administração oral crônica dos hidrolisados WE80BG e CHBP1 induziu uma redução progressiva e significativa da pressão arterial de SHR, sendo a diferença de 20,60 mmHg e 10 mmHg, respectivamente, em relação à pressão basal. O hidrolisado CE90ACE, que apresentou uma das melhores atividades anti-hipertensivas in vivo, induziu redução na filtração glomerular dos animais e promoveu maior excreção de sódio na porção pós-proximal do ducto renal, provavelmente devido a um efeito vasodilatador, decorrente da inibição da ECA. Ao comparar os resultados obtidos in vivo com os valores de IC50 antes e após a hidrólise gastrintestinal, não se observou relação entre a eficiência em inibir a ECA in vitro e a redução da pressão arterial in vivo dos hidrolisados protéicos comerciais. Em conclusão, as enzimas gastrintestinais exercem grande influência sobre atividade antihipertensiva dos hidrolisados protéicos comerciais, podendo aumentar ou diminuir o efeito hipotensor in vivo. Porém, a digestão gastrintestinal in vitro dos hidrolisados antes da avaliação do potencial inibidor da ECA unicamente não se mostrou vantajosa para a predição da atividade biológica dos hidrolisados, pois além da digestão gastrintestinal há outros fatores e/ou mecanismos que podem estar envolvidos com o decréscimo da pressão arterial produzido pela ação dos peptídeos / Abstract: Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory peptides present in foods have motivated the interest of many researchers, since there is evidence that the ingestion of these peptides, could aid in the prevention and in the non-medication treatment of hypertension. The anti-hypertensive activity of the peptides has been mainly assessed in relation to their capacity to inhibit the ACE, which has a fundamental role in regulating the blood pressure. In this way, innumerous studies have focused on the production and isolation of peptides with ACE-inhibitory activity from proteins from different food sources, though still little is known about the bioavailability of this peptides. The objectives of the present study were: assess the influence of the gastrointestinal enzymes on the ACEinhibitory activity of protein hydrolysates and the correlation with the anti-hypertensive activity assessed in vivo, and to assess the anti-hypertensive effect and kidney function of hydrolysates from different sources. Commercial hydrolysates from the following protein sources were used: casein (Hyprol 8052), milk whey (Hyprol 3301) and wheat gluten (Hyprol 4137), all provided by Kerry Bio-Science; casein (CE90ACE), milk whey (WE80BG) and soy (SE50BT), donated by DMV International, and hydrolysed collagens of bovine and porcine origins (Gelita South America). The hydrolysed collagens were fractionated in an ultrafiltration system using membranes with cut-offs of 30 to 50 kDa, 5 to 8 kDa and 1 to 2 kDa, obtaining the permeates P1 (PM<30-50 kDa), P2 (PM<5-8 kDa) and P3 (PM<1-2 kDa), respectively. The hydrolysates were physicochemically characterized and analysed for their ACE-inhibitory capacity before and after in vitro gastrointestinal digestion, and for their anti-hypertensive activity in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) via oral. The products presenting the best activity in vivo, were assessed for their influence on the kidney function of the animals and for their prolonged hypotensive effect on the blood pressure of SHR in a chronic experiment. The in vitro gastrointestinal hydrolysis promoted a variable effect on the ACE-inhibitory activity. The higher molecular weight hydrolysates, bovine and porcine collagen hydrolysates, presented a significant increase in the ACE-inhibitory potential. On the other hand a reduction in the ACE-inhibitory potential was observed for the smaller molecular weight hydrolysates, such as the casein (Hyprol 8052 and CE90ACE), milk whey (Hyprol 3301) and soy (SE50BT) hydrolysates. The bovine and porcine collagen hydrolysates and their fractions, both before and after in vitro gastrointestinal digestion, presented lower ACE-inhibitory potential than the other hydrolysates.All the hydrolysates analysed were capable of inducing a significant reduction in blood pressure in the SHR, except for the non-fractionated bovine (BCH) and porcine (PCH) collagen hydrolysates. The milk whey (WE80BG) and casein (CE90ACE) hydrolysates, P1 fractions of bovine and porcine collagen (BCHP1 and PCHP1) and the P3 fraction of the porcine collagen hydrolysate (PCHP3) were the most efficient in reducing the blood pressure in SHR. The chronic oral administration of the hydrolysates WE80BG and BCHP1 induced a progressive, significant reduction in the blood pressure of the SHR, showing a difference of 20.60 mmHg and 10 mmHg, respectively, as compared to the basal pressure. The hydrolysate CE90ACE, which presented one of the best in vivo anti-hypertensive activities, induced a reduction in glomerular filtration by the animals and promoted greater sodium excretion at the post-proximal portion of the kidney duct, probably due to a vasodilatory effect on account of ACE-inhibition. On comparing the in vivo results with the IC50 values, before and after gastrointestinal hydrolysis, no relation was observed between the in vitro ACE-inhibitory efficiency and the in vivo reduction in blood pressure by the commercial protein hydrolysates. In conclusion, the gastrointestinal enzymes exert considerable influence on the anti-hypertensive activity of the commercial protein hydrolysates, and can increase or decrease the in vivo hypotensive effect. Thus the in vitro gastrointestinal digestion of the hydrolisates alone, before the assessment of the ACE-inhibitory potential, is apparently of no advantage in predicting the biological activity of the hydrolysates, since apart from the gastrointestinal digestion other factors and/or mechanisms can also be involved in the decrease in blood pressure produced by the action of the peptides / Mestrado / Nutrição Experimental e Aplicada à Tecnologia de Alimentos / Mestre em Alimentos e Nutrição

Vascular resistance is mainly determined by the contraction of vascular smooth muscle (VSM), which is regulated by the phosphorylation of myosin light chain (MLC). VSM contraction is initiated by calcium influx into the VSM cells, which is mediated by transient receptor potential (TRP) channels and L-type voltage- dependent calcium channels (L-VDCC). On the other hand, calcium sensitization is a mechanism enhancing vascular contractile response at a given level of intracellular calcium by RhoA/Rho kinase pathway-mediated inhibition of myosin light chain phosphatase. In this thesis I present the data about i) the role of TRP channels in the mechanisms of vascular smooth muscle contraction, ii) enhanced contractility of arteries from spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR), and iii) the differences in contraction of arteries from normotensive and hypertensive rats related to the role of RhoA/Rho kinase pathway in three types of experimental hypertension (SHR, Ren-2 transgenic rats and salt-sensitive Dahl rats). In the study concerning TRP channels, I compared the effects of three commonly used non-selective TRP channels inhibitors (2-APB, SKF-96365, FFA) on isolated arteries. Among them 2-APB was the most interesting because the observed inhibitory effects of 2-APB were dependent on the type of...

Résumé Introduction L’amlodipine et l’atorvastatine offrent des avantages thérapeutiques au-delà de leur indication primaire, soit la réduction de la pression artérielle et des lipides sanguins, respectivement. L’amlodipine induit l’apoptose des cellules de muscle lisse vasculaire (CMLV) in vivo, contribuant à la régression de l'hypertrophie aortique chez le rat spontanément hypertendu (SHR). L'atorvastatine induit l’apoptose des CMLV in vitro, un effet proportionnel à la dose. Toutefois, cet effet reste à être démontré in vivo. Nous postulons que l’atorvastatine induira la régression de l’hypertrophie aortique via l’apoptose des CMLV chez le SHR, et que la combinaison de l’amlodipine et de l’atorvastatine aura un effet synergique sur la régression de l’hypertrophie aortique via l’apoptose des CMLV chez le SHR. Méthodologie L’amlodipine et l’atorvastatine ont été administrées à des SHR âgés de 11 semaines durant trois ou six semaines, individuellement ou en combinaison. Les points principaux à l'étude étaient le remodelage vasculaire et la pression artérielle. La fragmentation et le contenu en ADN, le stress oxydant, le taux de cholestérol et les niveaux de nitrates ont aussi été mesurés. Résultats Lorsque l’atorvastatine a été administrée seule, une diminution significative du stress oxydant et de la pression artérielle a été observée après trois et six semaines de traitement, respectivement. Par contre, aucune différence n’a pu être décelée quant au remodelage vasculaire. L'amlodipine a réduit la pression artérielle et l'hypertrophie aortique de façon dépendante de la dose. Une diminution significative de l'hyperplasie a été détectée après trois semaines de traitement avec la combinaison, et après six semaines avec une faible dose d'amlodipine. Conclusion Nos résultats ne supportent pas l'hypothèse que l'atorvastatine induit l'apoptose des CMLV in vivo. Par contre, lorsque combinée à l'amlodipine, elle pourrait ajouter un bénéfice supplémentaire au niveau de la réduction de l'hyperplasie aortique. / Abstract Background and purpose Antihypertensive drugs such as the calcium channel blocker (CCB) amlodipine and cholesterol lowering agents such as statins exhibit pleiotropic effects. Amlodipine reduces aortic hypertrophy and hyperplasia in spontaneously hypertensive rat (SHR) by inducing a transient wave of apoptosis. Atorvastatin induces apoptosis of vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) in vitro, independently of cholesterol synthesis, an effect that remains to be shown in vivo. The present studies were designed to test the hypothesis that atorvastatin can induce vascular remodeling by VSMC apoptosis in vivo in SHR, and to test whether combined therapy with low dose amlodipine would provide synergistic effects on regression of aortic hypertrophy. Experimental approach 11-week old SHR were given atorvastatin and amlodipine, alone or in combination, for three or six weeks. Primary end-points were vascular remodeling and blood pressure. Secondary end-points included DNA fragmentation and content in the aorta, oxidative stress, cholesterol and serum total nitrite and nitrate (NOx) concentrations. Key results Treatment with atorvastatin did not modify vascular structure, although it significantly reduced oxidative stress after three weeks and blood pressure after six weeks. Amlodipine dose-dependently reduced blood pressure and aortic hypertrophy. Significant reduction of cellular hyperplasia was reached after 6 weeks with a low dose of amlodipine alone or after 3 weeks when atorvastatin was combined with low dose amlodipine. Conclusions and implications Our results do not support the notion that atorvastatin induces VSMC apoptosis in vivo, although the data suggest a possible interaction with amlodipine in reducing VSMC hyperplasia in the hypertensive aorta.

Résumé Introduction L’amlodipine et l’atorvastatine offrent des avantages thérapeutiques au-delà de leur indication primaire, soit la réduction de la pression artérielle et des lipides sanguins, respectivement. L’amlodipine induit l’apoptose des cellules de muscle lisse vasculaire (CMLV) in vivo, contribuant à la régression de l'hypertrophie aortique chez le rat spontanément hypertendu (SHR). L'atorvastatine induit l’apoptose des CMLV in vitro, un effet proportionnel à la dose. Toutefois, cet effet reste à être démontré in vivo. Nous postulons que l’atorvastatine induira la régression de l’hypertrophie aortique via l’apoptose des CMLV chez le SHR, et que la combinaison de l’amlodipine et de l’atorvastatine aura un effet synergique sur la régression de l’hypertrophie aortique via l’apoptose des CMLV chez le SHR. Méthodologie L’amlodipine et l’atorvastatine ont été administrées à des SHR âgés de 11 semaines durant trois ou six semaines, individuellement ou en combinaison. Les points principaux à l'étude étaient le remodelage vasculaire et la pression artérielle. La fragmentation et le contenu en ADN, le stress oxydant, le taux de cholestérol et les niveaux de nitrates ont aussi été mesurés. Résultats Lorsque l’atorvastatine a été administrée seule, une diminution significative du stress oxydant et de la pression artérielle a été observée après trois et six semaines de traitement, respectivement. Par contre, aucune différence n’a pu être décelée quant au remodelage vasculaire. L'amlodipine a réduit la pression artérielle et l'hypertrophie aortique de façon dépendante de la dose. Une diminution significative de l'hyperplasie a été détectée après trois semaines de traitement avec la combinaison, et après six semaines avec une faible dose d'amlodipine. Conclusion Nos résultats ne supportent pas l'hypothèse que l'atorvastatine induit l'apoptose des CMLV in vivo. Par contre, lorsque combinée à l'amlodipine, elle pourrait ajouter un bénéfice supplémentaire au niveau de la réduction de l'hyperplasie aortique. / Abstract Background and purpose Antihypertensive drugs such as the calcium channel blocker (CCB) amlodipine and cholesterol lowering agents such as statins exhibit pleiotropic effects. Amlodipine reduces aortic hypertrophy and hyperplasia in spontaneously hypertensive rat (SHR) by inducing a transient wave of apoptosis. Atorvastatin induces apoptosis of vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) in vitro, independently of cholesterol synthesis, an effect that remains to be shown in vivo. The present studies were designed to test the hypothesis that atorvastatin can induce vascular remodeling by VSMC apoptosis in vivo in SHR, and to test whether combined therapy with low dose amlodipine would provide synergistic effects on regression of aortic hypertrophy. Experimental approach 11-week old SHR were given atorvastatin and amlodipine, alone or in combination, for three or six weeks. Primary end-points were vascular remodeling and blood pressure. Secondary end-points included DNA fragmentation and content in the aorta, oxidative stress, cholesterol and serum total nitrite and nitrate (NOx) concentrations. Key results Treatment with atorvastatin did not modify vascular structure, although it significantly reduced oxidative stress after three weeks and blood pressure after six weeks. Amlodipine dose-dependently reduced blood pressure and aortic hypertrophy. Significant reduction of cellular hyperplasia was reached after 6 weeks with a low dose of amlodipine alone or after 3 weeks when atorvastatin was combined with low dose amlodipine. Conclusions and implications Our results do not support the notion that atorvastatin induces VSMC apoptosis in vivo, although the data suggest a possible interaction with amlodipine in reducing VSMC hyperplasia in the hypertensive aorta.

Einleitung: Ischämische Schlaganfälle ziehen ausgeprägte Entzündungsprozesse im Gehirn sowie Immunreaktionen in der Körperperipherie nach sich, welche den Erkrankungsverlauf und die Regeneration maßgeblich beeinflussen. Die Modulation dieser Immunantwort stellt folglich einen vielversprechenden experimentellen Ansatz in der Schlaganfalltherapie dar. Der ischämische Schlaganfall ist außerdem mit verschiedenen Komorbiditäten und Risikofaktoren assoziiert, deren Auswirkungen auf die komplexen postischämischen pathophysiologischen Prozesse nur in Teilen aufgeklärt sind. So hat eine arterielle Hypertonie (Bluthochdruck) als wichtigster modifizierbarer Risikofaktor durch die Induktion von Gefäßschäden eine zentrale Bedeutung für die Pathogenese von ischämischen Schlaganfällen und geht außerdem mit einer Aktivierung des Immunsystems einher. Der konkrete Einfluss der Hypertonie auf die postischämische Entzündungsreaktion wurde bislang nicht hinreichend untersucht. Die Einbeziehung wichtiger Begleiterkrankungen, wie Bluthochdruck, in die präklinische Schlaganfallforschung gewinnt zunehmend an Bedeutung, da ein erweitertes Verständnis der pathophysiologischen Zusammenhänge auch eine bessere Übertragbarkeit neuer immunmodulatorischer Therapiekonzepte auf den Menschen in Aussicht stellt. Zielstellung: Das Hauptziel dieser Arbeit ist die Identifizierung pathofunktioneller Zusammenhänge zwischen der Immunantwort nach Schlaganfall und manifestem Bluthochdruck. Dafür wurde die zentrale und periphere Entzündungsreaktion nach experimentellem Schlaganfall in einem prämorbiden hypertensiven Tiermodell (spontan-hypertensive Ratte, SHR) im Vergleich mit normotensiven Tieren mithilfe von vorwiegend durchflusszytometrischen, histologischen und molekularbiologischen Methoden analysiert. Daneben sollte das verwendete hypertensive Tiermodell für die Untersuchung immunologischer Aspekte der translationalen Schlaganfallforschung evaluiert werden. Tiere, Material und Methoden: Für alle Tierversuche und Organentnahmen wurden ausschließlich männliche Ratten der Stämme Wistar-Kyoto und SHR im Alter von 12 bis 14 Wochen verwendet. Die Induktion des ischämischen Infarkts erfolgte mithilfe eines permanenten, transkraniellen Schlaganfallmodells oder mittels photochemischer Thrombose. In Abhängigkeit von der Untersuchungsgruppe wurden die Tiere 1 oder 4 Tage nach Infarktinduktion bzw. Sham-Operation schmerzfrei getötet. Neben wenigen neuroanatomischen und neurofunktionellen Ausleseparametern wurde als Hauptzielgröße die Immunzellverteilung im Gehirn und im Blut erfasst. Dafür wurden Hirnzellisolate und Vollblutproben mit maximal 8 fluoreszenzgekoppelten Antikörpern in verschiedenen Kombinationen markiert und in einem 3-Laser-Durchflusszytometer (FACSCanto II) gemessen und ausgewertet. Zudem wurden in kryokonservierten Hirnschnitten relevante Immunzellpopulationen und Adhäsionsmoleküle mittels Immunfluorezenztechniken markiert und für die Darstellung der räumlichen Verteilung mit einem Konfokal-Mikroskop (LSM710, Zeiss) analysiert. Zusätzlich wurde die Gen-und Proteinexpression selektiver Zytokine und Adhäsionsmoleküle in dissoziiertem Hirngewebe ermittelt. Die statistische Auswertung wurde je nach erfasster Zielgröße mittels zweiseitigem t-Test, Wilcoxon Rangsummentest, Pearson-Korrelation oder Varianzanalyse-Verfahren durchgeführt. Ein Signifikanzniveau von p<0,05 wurde für alle statistischen Verfahren festgelegt. Ergebnisse: Neben einer vergrößerten Läsion konnte in hypertensiven Tieren insbesondere eine gesteigerte Infiltration von Zellen des angeborenen Immunsystems in das ischämische Hirn gezeigt werden. Eine Verschiebung des Makrophagen-Granulozyten-Verhältnisses wies darüber hinaus auf eine veränderte Entzündungskinetik bei Vorliegen von Bluthochdruck hin. Weiterhin wurde in Tieren mit arterieller Hypertonie eine erhöhte Zahl von zirkulierenden Monozyten und Granulozyten beobachtet. Im Hirngewebe von spontan-hypertensiven Ratten nach Schlaganfall wurden außerdem eine verminderte Expression des antiinflammatorisch wirksamen Zytokins Interleukin 10, erhöhte Expressionsraten selektiver Leukozyten-rekrutierender Chemokine sowie eine vermehrte Expression des Adhäsionsmoleküls ICAM-1 auf infiltrierenden Leukozyten erfasst. Daneben konnten modellabhängige Einflüsse der verschiedenen Induktionsmethoden auf die Immunreaktion identifiziert werden. Schlussfolgerung: Die Ergebnisse weisen deutlich auf einen Zusammenhang zwischen einem bestehenden arteriellen Hypertonus und einer gesteigerten entzündlichen Reaktion im Gehirn nach experimentellem Schlaganfall hin und zeigen mögliche zugrundeliegende Mechanismen auf. Gleichzeitig unterstreicht die Arbeit durch eine differenzierte Analyse methodischer und modellabhängiger Einflüsse die Unerlässlichkeit, präklinische Ergebnisse kritisch zu hinterfragen und in unterschiedlichen Modellen zu überprüfen. Auf Grundlage der Untersuchungen kann die spontan-hypertensive Ratte zudem als ein für die translationale Schlaganfallforschung geeignetes prämorbides Tiermodell beurteilt werden, in welchem sich der Einfluss des Risikofaktors Bluthochdruck auf die Entwicklung und den Verlauf der postischämischen Entzündung gut abbilden lässt.:Inhaltsverzeichnis Abkürzungsverzeichnis 1 Einleitung 2 Literaturübersicht 2.1 Humaner Schlaganfall - Grundlagen 2.1.1 Epidemiologie und sozioökonomische Bedeutung 2.1.2 Allgemeine Definition und Ätiologie 2.2 Postischämische Entzündung und systemische Immunantwort 2.2.1 Allgemein 2.2.2 Initialer Pathomechanismus der sterilen Entzündung im Gehirn 2.2.3 Immunzellen in der postischämischen Entzündung 2.2.4 Periphere Immunmodulation und postischämische Immunsuppression 2.2.5 Auflösung der Entzündungsreaktion 2.3 Schlaganfall und Hypertonie 2.4 Translation - Schlaganfall im Tiermodell 2.4.1 Tiermodelle 2.4.2 Methoden zur Induktion des experimentellen Schlaganfalls 2.4.3 Translationsproblematik 2.4.4 Die spontan-hypertensive Ratte als prämorbides Tiermodell 2.5 Therapieverfahren und therapeutische Ansätze 3 Zielstellung und Aufbau der Arbeit 4 Publikation 1 5 Publikation 2 6 Zusammenfassende Diskussion 6.1 Infarktvolumina und funktionelle Daten 6.2 Immunzytologie im Hirngewebe 6.3 Immunzytologie im peripheren Blut 6.4 Leukozytenrekrutierung ins ischämische Gewebe 6.5 Fazit, Limitationen und Ausblick 7 Zusammenfassung 8 Summary 9 Literaturverzeichnis Danksagung / Introduction: Ischemic strokes lead to a sequence of immune responses, including pronounced tissue inflammation in the brain as well as distinct reactions of the peripheral immune system that consistently influence disease process and outcome. The modulation of these immune responses therefore represents a promising experimental approach in stroke therapy. Ischemic stroke is also associated with various comorbidities and risk factors whose effects on the complex postischemic pathology have only been partially elucidated. Being the most important modifiable risk factor this especially applies to arterial hypertension that has a central role in the pathogenesis of ischemic stroke by inducing vascular damage but is also associated with a strong activation of the immune system. However, the specific influence of hypertension on postischemic inflammation has not been sufficiently investigated. Besides, the integration of hypertension and other important concomitant diseases is becoming a more regular tool in preclinical stroke modelling in order to expand the understanding of pathophysiological interactions and overcome the translational gap of new immunomodulatory therapies. Aim: The main objective of this work is the identification of pathofunctional interations between the immune response after stroke and preexisting arterial hypertension. For this purpose, the central and peripheral inflammatory response after experimental stroke was investigated in a premorbid hypertensive animal model (spontaneously hypertensive rat, SHR) in comparison with normotensive animals by means of flow cytometric, histological and molecular biological methods. In addition, the hypertensive animal model was supposed to be assessed regarding its suitability for the investigation of immunological aspects in translational stroke research. Material and Methods: For all animal experiments and organ removal, only male rats of the Wistar Kyoto and SHR strains aged 12 to 14 weeks were used. Induction of experimental stroke was performed using either a permanent transcranial stroke model or photochemical thrombosis model. Depending on the study group, animals were killed painlessly 1 or 4 days after infarct induction or sham surgery respectively. In addition to few neuroanatomic and neurofunctional readout parameters, immune cell distribution in the brain and blood was captured as primary variable. Therefore, brain cell isolates and whole blood samples labeled with a maximum of 8 fluorescence-coupled antibodies in different combinations were measured and analyzed in a 3-laser flow cytometer (FACSCanto II). Furthermore, immunofluorescence techniques were applied on cryopreserved brain sections in order to image spatial distribution of relevant immune cell populations and adhesion molecules by means of confocal microscopy (LSM710, Zeiss). In addition, the mRNA and protein expression of selective cytokines and adhesion molecules was determined in dissociated brain tissue. Depending on the targeted parameter statistical analyses were performed by using two-sample t-test, Wilcoxon rank-sum test, Pearson correlation coefficient or analysis of variance. A significance level of p<0.05 was set for all statistical methods. Results: In addition to an enlarged lesion, in hypertensive animals an increased infiltration of cells of the innate immune system to the ischemic brain area was detected. A shift of the macrophage-granulocyte-ratio further indicated an altered inflammatory profile in hypertensive rats. Furthermore, an increased number of circulating monocytes and granulocytes were observed in animals with hypertension. In brain tissue of SHR after stroke, a decreased expression of the anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin 10 were recorded along with increased expression levels of selective leukocyte-recruiting chemokines and an increased expression of the adhesion molecule ICAM-1 on infiltrating leukocytes. In addition, caused by different induction methods, model-dependent impact on the immune reaction could be identified. Conclusion: The results clearly indicate a relationship between existing arterial hypertension and an increased inflammatory response in the brain after experimental stroke and point out potential underlying mechanisms. At the same time, by adopting a differentiated view of methodological and model-dependent influences, the work underscores the need for critical reflection and constant verification of preclinical results in different models. Finally the work validates the SHR strain as a suitable premorbid preclinical system for further translational research since it well models the influence of hypertension on the development and course of postischemic inflammation.:Inhaltsverzeichnis Abkürzungsverzeichnis 1 Einleitung 2 Literaturübersicht 2.1 Humaner Schlaganfall - Grundlagen 2.1.1 Epidemiologie und sozioökonomische Bedeutung 2.1.2 Allgemeine Definition und Ätiologie 2.2 Postischämische Entzündung und systemische Immunantwort 2.2.1 Allgemein 2.2.2 Initialer Pathomechanismus der sterilen Entzündung im Gehirn 2.2.3 Immunzellen in der postischämischen Entzündung 2.2.4 Periphere Immunmodulation und postischämische Immunsuppression 2.2.5 Auflösung der Entzündungsreaktion 2.3 Schlaganfall und Hypertonie 2.4 Translation - Schlaganfall im Tiermodell 2.4.1 Tiermodelle 2.4.2 Methoden zur Induktion des experimentellen Schlaganfalls 2.4.3 Translationsproblematik 2.4.4 Die spontan-hypertensive Ratte als prämorbides Tiermodell 2.5 Therapieverfahren und therapeutische Ansätze 3 Zielstellung und Aufbau der Arbeit 4 Publikation 1 5 Publikation 2 6 Zusammenfassende Diskussion 6.1 Infarktvolumina und funktionelle Daten 6.2 Immunzytologie im Hirngewebe 6.3 Immunzytologie im peripheren Blut 6.4 Leukozytenrekrutierung ins ischämische Gewebe 6.5 Fazit, Limitationen und Ausblick 7 Zusammenfassung 8 Summary 9 Literaturverzeichnis Danksagung

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Impaired endothelial vasomotor function is a hallmark of many chronic disease states, including essential hypertension and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Loss of the homeostatic role of the endothelium in large conduit arteries can contribute to the pathogenesis of cardiovascular conditions in these vessels (e.g. stroke, atherosclerosis). A fundamental understanding of mechanisms controlling endothelial function in hypertension and type 2 diabetes mellitus is required for appropriate clinical strategies targeting the cardiovascular conditions associated with these diseases. The vast majority of basic science studies examining endothelial function in animal models of hypertension and type 2 diabetes have been conducted in males. Studying endothelial function in females is imperative for determining potential sex-specific mechanisms of dysfunction and thus appropriate therapeutic strategies. Thus the global purpose of this thesis is to identify and characterize the pathways controlling impaired vasomotor function in female animal models of two chronic disease states: hypertension and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Chapters 2 and 3 of this thesis examine sex differences in endothelium-dependent vasorelaxation (EDR) and vasocontraction (EDC) of aortic segments isolated from male and female spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR), a model of essential hypertension, as the animals age between 16 and 30 wk old. All endothelial vasomotor data presented in the Abstract are peak responses to 10⁻⁵ M acetylcholine. Endothelial vasomotor impairment is represented by lower EDR or by higher EDC. These present data confirmed well-established findings from the literature that 16 wk old male SHR exhibit endothelial vasomotor impairments (EDR: 77±4 %; EDC: 76±7 %) compared to normotensive Wistar-Kyoto (WKY; EDR: 89±6 %; EDC: 59±8 %; p<0.05) controls, and that this impairment worsens with ageing in 30 wk male SHR (EDR: 63±2 %; EDC: 91±3 %; p<0.05). The observation that EDR was reduced in 30 wk female SHR (EDR: 76±4 %) compared to 16 wk counterparts (EDR: 101±2 %; p<0.05), however, was novel and interesting, as there were previously no reports of vasomotor responses in female SHR older than 19 wk. Moreover, the blunted EDR response of 30 wk female SHR approached the level of impairment exhibited by 30 wk male SHR (but was still slightly greater in females; p<0.05). The limited sex difference of the EDR within 30 wk SHR (males –13 % vs. females; p<0.05) contrasted that of 16 wk SHR (males –24 % vs. females; p<0.05), when the robust and unimpaired relaxation displayed by females was much greater than the significantly blunted response of males. Interestingly, endothelium-dependent contractions in quiescent rings were moderate and similar between 16 wk (EDC: 50±4 %) and 30 wk female SHR (EDC: 59±7 %; p=N/S) as compared to the greater contractions of males that were exacerbated with ageing (see above; p<0.05 both sex and ageing comparison). A major role has been established for the cyclooxygenase (COX)-1-thromboxane A₂/prostaglandin (TP) receptor pathway in the impaired endothelial vasomotor function of male SHR. Indeed, a similar mechanism appears to be responsible for the dysfunction observed in 30 wk female SHR in this thesis since robust endothelial function was restored in these animals with both antagonism of TP receptor (EDR: 111±2 %; EDC: 7±2 %; p<0.05) and preferential inhibition of COX-1 (EDR: 112±3 %; EDC: –5±3 %; p<0.05). In contrast, preferential inhibition of COX-2 only partially tempered endothelial impairments of 30 wk female SHR (EDR: 99±5 %; EDC: 27±3 %; p<0.05), suggesting that, similar to ageing male SHR, this isoform makes at most a secondary contribution to the dysfunction in 30 wk female SHR. Collectively, these data indicate that ageing female SHR exhibit a mechanism of endothelial impairment that is similar to that of male SHR and that is largely COX-1- and TP receptor-dependent. Chapter 4 examines the ability of chronic dietary administration of the n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6 n-3), to ameliorate endothelial vasomotor function in adult male SHR with established hypertension. The impaired endothelial function of aortic segments isolated from adult male SHR (EDR: 48±6 %) was not improved following 10–12 wk of DHA feeding (EDR: 45±5 %; p=N/S). This finding was unexpected since it has been shown in the literature that feeding other n-3 PUFAs improves vasomotor responses in younger SHR, in which hypertension and its associated consequences are still developing. This is the first report of the effects of n-3 PUFA on endothelial vasomotor responses in adult SHR with established hypertension. These data suggest that dietary DHA do not improve vasomotor function in adult SHR. Chapter 5 examines α₁ adrenergic contraction and EDR of aortic segments isolated from 14 wk old female Zucker diabetic fatty rats (ZDF), a genetic model of high fat diet-induced obesity and type 2 diabetes, and lean non-diabetic female Zucker Lean rats. Additionally, some ZDF received an 8 wk administration of anti-diabetic metformin drug therapy, aerobic exercise training, or a combination of the two. Maximal α₁ adrenergic contractions were over 2-fold higher in high fat-fed ZDF (1.69±0.16 g) compared to Lean (0.71±0.13 g; p<0.05). This elevation in ZDF was abolished by exercise training alone (1.02±0.17 g; p<0.05) but was not altered by metformin (1.56±0.19 g; p=N/S). In contrast to the severely impaired endothelial vasomotor function reported in male ZDF in the literature, robust EDR was observed in female ZDF (72±7 %) that was similar to Lean (75±6 %; p=N/S) and that was unaltered by exercise training (76±5 %; p=N/S) or metformin (76±6 %; p=N/S). These results indicate that enhanced α₁ adrenergic contraction is a mechanism of altered vasomotor function in female type 2 diabetic ZDF rats and that it could possibly be addressed by a chronic exercise training intervention. The main novelty of the thesis is the extension of the current understanding of endothelial vasomotor function to hypertensive and type 2 diabetic females. The knowledge gained from examining mechanisms involved in endothelial impairments in ageing hypertensive females and from testing the therapeutic potential of currently used anti-diabetic interventions in the type 2 diabetic female vasculature has interesting potential application. This basic scientific information could help direct clinical therapeutic strategies to target population-specific mechanisms of dysfunction. Understanding female sex-specific endothelial behaviour in patient populations is important for describing cardiovascular complications, defining mechanisms, and applying appropriate therapeutic targets. Findings from this thesis indicate a sex-dependence of the total divergence of endothelial function (e.g. female type 2 diabetic rats vs. male counterparts in the literature) and of the interaction of disease variables (e.g. age) and endothelial vasomotor responses.

Impaired endothelial vasomotor function is a hallmark of many chronic disease states, including essential hypertension and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Loss of the homeostatic role of the endothelium in large conduit arteries can contribute to the pathogenesis of cardiovascular conditions in these vessels (e.g. stroke, atherosclerosis). A fundamental understanding of mechanisms controlling endothelial function in hypertension and type 2 diabetes mellitus is required for appropriate clinical strategies targeting the cardiovascular conditions associated with these diseases. The vast majority of basic science studies examining endothelial function in animal models of hypertension and type 2 diabetes have been conducted in males. Studying endothelial function in females is imperative for determining potential sex-specific mechanisms of dysfunction and thus appropriate therapeutic strategies. Thus the global purpose of this thesis is to identify and characterize the pathways controlling impaired vasomotor function in female animal models of two chronic disease states: hypertension and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Chapters 2 and 3 of this thesis examine sex differences in endothelium-dependent vasorelaxation (EDR) and vasocontraction (EDC) of aortic segments isolated from male and female spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR), a model of essential hypertension, as the animals age between 16 and 30 wk old. All endothelial vasomotor data presented in the Abstract are peak responses to 10⁻⁵ M acetylcholine. Endothelial vasomotor impairment is represented by lower EDR or by higher EDC. These present data confirmed well-established findings from the literature that 16 wk old male SHR exhibit endothelial vasomotor impairments (EDR: 77±4 %; EDC: 76±7 %) compared to normotensive Wistar-Kyoto (WKY; EDR: 89±6 %; EDC: 59±8 %; p<0.05) controls, and that this impairment worsens with ageing in 30 wk male SHR (EDR: 63±2 %; EDC: 91±3 %; p<0.05). The observation that EDR was reduced in 30 wk female SHR (EDR: 76±4 %) compared to 16 wk counterparts (EDR: 101±2 %; p<0.05), however, was novel and interesting, as there were previously no reports of vasomotor responses in female SHR older than 19 wk. Moreover, the blunted EDR response of 30 wk female SHR approached the level of impairment exhibited by 30 wk male SHR (but was still slightly greater in females; p<0.05). The limited sex difference of the EDR within 30 wk SHR (males –13 % vs. females; p<0.05) contrasted that of 16 wk SHR (males –24 % vs. females; p<0.05), when the robust and unimpaired relaxation displayed by females was much greater than the significantly blunted response of males. Interestingly, endothelium-dependent contractions in quiescent rings were moderate and similar between 16 wk (EDC: 50±4 %) and 30 wk female SHR (EDC: 59±7 %; p=N/S) as compared to the greater contractions of males that were exacerbated with ageing (see above; p<0.05 both sex and ageing comparison). A major role has been established for the cyclooxygenase (COX)-1-thromboxane A₂/prostaglandin (TP) receptor pathway in the impaired endothelial vasomotor function of male SHR. Indeed, a similar mechanism appears to be responsible for the dysfunction observed in 30 wk female SHR in this thesis since robust endothelial function was restored in these animals with both antagonism of TP receptor (EDR: 111±2 %; EDC: 7±2 %; p<0.05) and preferential inhibition of COX-1 (EDR: 112±3 %; EDC: –5±3 %; p<0.05). In contrast, preferential inhibition of COX-2 only partially tempered endothelial impairments of 30 wk female SHR (EDR: 99±5 %; EDC: 27±3 %; p<0.05), suggesting that, similar to ageing male SHR, this isoform makes at most a secondary contribution to the dysfunction in 30 wk female SHR. Collectively, these data indicate that ageing female SHR exhibit a mechanism of endothelial impairment that is similar to that of male SHR and that is largely COX-1- and TP receptor-dependent. Chapter 4 examines the ability of chronic dietary administration of the n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6 n-3), to ameliorate endothelial vasomotor function in adult male SHR with established hypertension. The impaired endothelial function of aortic segments isolated from adult male SHR (EDR: 48±6 %) was not improved following 10–12 wk of DHA feeding (EDR: 45±5 %; p=N/S). This finding was unexpected since it has been shown in the literature that feeding other n-3 PUFAs improves vasomotor responses in younger SHR, in which hypertension and its associated consequences are still developing. This is the first report of the effects of n-3 PUFA on endothelial vasomotor responses in adult SHR with established hypertension. These data suggest that dietary DHA do not improve vasomotor function in adult SHR. Chapter 5 examines α₁ adrenergic contraction and EDR of aortic segments isolated from 14 wk old female Zucker diabetic fatty rats (ZDF), a genetic model of high fat diet-induced obesity and type 2 diabetes, and lean non-diabetic female Zucker Lean rats. Additionally, some ZDF received an 8 wk administration of anti-diabetic metformin drug therapy, aerobic exercise training, or a combination of the two. Maximal α₁ adrenergic contractions were over 2-fold higher in high fat-fed ZDF (1.69±0.16 g) compared to Lean (0.71±0.13 g; p<0.05). This elevation in ZDF was abolished by exercise training alone (1.02±0.17 g; p<0.05) but was not altered by metformin (1.56±0.19 g; p=N/S). In contrast to the severely impaired endothelial vasomotor function reported in male ZDF in the literature, robust EDR was observed in female ZDF (72±7 %) that was similar to Lean (75±6 %; p=N/S) and that was unaltered by exercise training (76±5 %; p=N/S) or metformin (76±6 %; p=N/S). These results indicate that enhanced α₁ adrenergic contraction is a mechanism of altered vasomotor function in female type 2 diabetic ZDF rats and that it could possibly be addressed by a chronic exercise training intervention. The main novelty of the thesis is the extension of the current understanding of endothelial vasomotor function to hypertensive and type 2 diabetic females. The knowledge gained from examining mechanisms involved in endothelial impairments in ageing hypertensive females and from testing the therapeutic potential of currently used anti-diabetic interventions in the type 2 diabetic female vasculature has interesting potential application. This basic scientific information could help direct clinical therapeutic strategies to target population-specific mechanisms of dysfunction. Understanding female sex-specific endothelial behaviour in patient populations is important for describing cardiovascular complications, defining mechanisms, and applying appropriate therapeutic targets. Findings from this thesis indicate a sex-dependence of the total divergence of endothelial function (e.g. female type 2 diabetic rats vs. male counterparts in the literature) and of the interaction of disease variables (e.g. age) and endothelial vasomotor responses.

The adrenergic system plays an important role in the regulation of blood pressure. In the spontaneously hypertensive rat, the most studied model of essential hypertension, many components of the adrenergic system are altered. Changes in expression level of any catecholamine biosynthetic enzymes or any adrenergic receptor subtypes could be one of the causes of hypertension development. In this work, the expression of adrenergic system genes was measured in adrenal gland, renal cortex and renal medulla of the spontaneously hypertensive (SHR), Wistar-Kyoto and Brown Norway rats at the age of thirteen weeks. In adrenal gland of SHR, all four catecholamine biosynthetic enzymes (tyrosine hydroxylase, DOPA decarboxylase, dopamine β-hydroxylase and phenylethanolamine-N- methyltransferase) and almost all subtypes of adrenergic receptors (with the exception of Adra1a and Adra1d) were underexpressed. This generally decreased expression in adrenal gland of SHR suggests that at least a part of regulation of adrenergic system gene expression is common. The mechanism of this downregulation in SHR could be a negative feedback through adrenergic receptors stimulated by high plasma noradrenaline concentration. In the kidney of SHR, there were no differences in the expression of most of adrenergic receptor subtypes with the...