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Research has consistently found that the type of feedback coaches provide their players with has a substantial impact on both the motivation and the performance of these athletes. Further, several studies have found that athletes’ motivation predicts sport performance. In order to optimize the performance of their athletes, coaches need to understand how various feedback strategies impact motivation and performance. The present study examined the relationship between coaching feedback, athletes’ motivation, and athletic performance from the perspective of self-determination theory. Feedback style was conceptualized in four categories: behavior-based corrective feedback, behavior-based supportive feedback, person-based corrective feedback, and person-based supportive feedback. Athlete motivation was conceptualized as intrinsic and extrinsic. Participants included 169 NCAA athletes (56.2% male) from Division I and III colleges and universities in the United States. This sample includes 35 golfers, 50 basketball players, and 84 baseball/softball players. All participants completed a survey reporting their perception of their coaches’ feedback style and their motivation. The commonly recorded individual performance statistics were used as the outcome measure. A factor analysis confirmed the four-factor structure of the perceived feedback scale and structural equation modeling was used to test the relationship between feedback, motivation, and performance. The results revealed that athletes perceive a) more supportive than corrective feedback, b) that corrective feedback was more behavior-based than person-based, and c) that supportive feedback was more person-based than behavior-based. Additionally, Supportive person-based (β = -.22) and corrective person-based feedback (β = .18) were linked with intrinsic motivation. Both intrinsic (β = .13) and extrinsic motivation (β = .82) were related to athletic performance. Corrective person-based feedback had a significant indirect effect on performance through the mediation of intrinsic motivation (β = -.10). The findings from this study can inform coaches to use more supportive and less corrective person-based feedback to increase motivation and performance. / Research has consistently found that the type of feedback coaches provide their players with has a substantial impact on both the motivation and the performance of these athletes. Further, several studies have found that athletes’ motivation predicts sport performance. In order to optimize the performance of their athletes, coaches need to understand how various feedback strategies impact motivation and performance. This study examined the relationship between coaching feedback, athletes’ motivation, and athletic performance. Feedback style was conceptualized in four categories: behavior-based corrective feedback which is delivered after a negative performance and focuses on behavior, behavior-based supportive feedback which is delivered after a positive performance and focuses on specific behavior, person-based corrective feedback which is delivered after an undesirable performance and targets the individual, and person-based supportive feedback which is delivered after a negative performance and focuses on the individual. Participants included 169 NCAA athletes (56.2% male) from Division I and III colleges and universities in the United States. This sample includes 35 golfers, 50 basketball players, and 84 baseball/softball players. All participants completed a survey reporting their perception of their coaches’ feedback style and their motivation. The commonly recorded individual performance statistics were used as the outcome measure. The results revealed that athletes perceive a) more supportive than corrective feedback, b) that corrective feedback was more behavior-based than person-based, and c) that supportive feedback was more person-based than behavior-based. Additionally, Supportive person-based and corrective person-based feedback were linked with intrinsic motivation. Both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation were related to athletic performance. Corrective person-based feedback had a significant indirect effect on performance through the mediation of intrinsic. The findings from this study can inform coaches to use more supportive and less corrective person-based feedback to increase motivation and performance.

Virtual reality (VR) has been successfully applied to a broad range of training domains; however, to date there is little research investigating its benefits for sport training. In this work we investigated the feasibility and usefulness of using VR for two sport subdomains: sport psychology and sport biomechanics. In terms of sport psychology training, high-fidelity VR systems could be used to display realistic 3D environments to induce anxiety, allowing resilience-training systems to prepare athletes for real-world, high-pressure situations. For sport biomechanical training, we could take advantage of the 3D tracking available in VR systems to capture and display full-body movements in real-time, and could design flexible 3D environments to foster a valuable and engaging training experience. To address using VR for sport psychology training, in this work we present a case study and a controlled experiment. Our work addresses whether a VR system can induce anxiety in participants, and if so, how this anxiety impacts performance, and what the implications are for VR system design. sing VR for sport biomechanical training, in this work we present a case study describing the development of a VR-based jump training application. Our work addresses whether an effective VR biomechanical training system can be achieved using standard computer equipment and commodity tracking devices, and how we should design the user experience of a VR sport training system to effectively deliver biomechanical principles. / Master of Science

The objectives of this mixed-method intervention study were: (1) To examine idiosyncratic profiles of emotions and performance of 3-4 leading handball team players in successful and less successful games and identify their strengths and limitations in emotion-concentration regulation; (2) To develop, implement, and evaluate an intervention program aimed at optimizing the players' emotion-concentration regulation and performance. The participants (n= 4, age= 24,5) consisted of four female elite handball players from the same team. An emotion-performance profiling process was conducted to facilitate objective one. To facilitate objective two, a small group IZOF based short term intervention was developed and implemented. The participants’ emotion-performance profiles are presented. The evaluation of the intervention indicated that the intervention increased the participants’ awareness and knowledge, and stimulated psychological skills development (i.e., emotion regulation and concentration). Methodological issues,future directions, and implications are discussed.

Social support plays an important role in our physical and mental health, and is also recognised as a key factor for the success and well-being of athletes. It would be of significant interest for researchers and practitioners to identify the components of perceived and received social support, support antecedents, and subsequent consequences of support. The first aim of this thesis was to apply a univariate generalisability theory approach to examine the components of perceived and received support. The second aim was to apply a multivariate generalisability theory approach to identify the antecedents and consequences of perceived and received support across different levels of analysis. Four studies were conducted applying either a fully crossed or partially nested design to examine components of social support when athletes rated coaches or their most important support providers within their existing social networks. Further, in Studies 3 and 4, participants also completed a performance task in the presence of support providers. Univariate analyses demonstrated that consistently across all studies the relational and social components accounted for the largest amount of variance in both perceived and received support. These findings suggest that perceivers rated certain providers to be particularly supportive, in comparison to how they rated other providers. Across all studies multivariate analyses revealed that provider personality and social identity related to perceptions of support at the relational and social level. In Studies 1 and 4, coach competency also related to perceptions of support at the relational and social level. When athletes perceived certain providers to exhibit specific personality traits, particularly the trait of agreeableness, felt certain coaches were highly competent, and shared a common identity with providers, those providers were also perceived to be particularly supportive. Studies 3 and 4, however, were unable to identify antecedents of received support at any level of analysis, suggesting that perceived and received support have distinct antecedents. Further, in Studies 3 and 4, perceived and received support had unique relationships with self-confidence and performance across the different components. At the perceiver and trait level, when athletes felt they generally received support from providers, they generally felt more confident. In comparison, at the relational and social level, if athletes perceived certain providers to be particularly supportive, they performed better in their presence. The support received from those providers was also beneficial through enhancing self-confidence and, in turn, performance. The findings from the current thesis significantly further conceptual understanding of perceived and received support by identifying their correlates at the different levels of analysis. The current thesis also offers evidence based recommendations for social support interventions.

Sport psychology professionals (SPPs), like psychologists in general, may cross therapeutic boundaries (e.g., hug a client) and even become sexually attracted to their athlete-clients (ACs). I examined the prevalence of these issues, as well as SPPs' ethical training and use of supervision in relation to them. Participants were 181 SPPs; 92 (50.8%) reported being sexually attracted to one or more of their ACs. In regards to specific behaviors, approximately half (49.4%) reported discussing personal matters unrelated to their (n = 87), whereas far fewer had engaged in sexual behaviors with their ACs, such as discussing sexual matters unrelated to their work (n = 4), and caressing or intimately touching an AC (n = 1). No SPP reported kissing, dating, having sexual intercourse, or engaging in other sexual activities with their ACs. The three most common nonsexual boundary crossings were (a) consulting with an AC in public places (e.g., hotel lobby or practice field; 87.8%), (b) working with an AC at practice (86.2%), (c) working with an AC at a competition (75.0%). Interestingly, few SPPs sought supervision/consultation regarding the attraction, though 83.7% said they would do so if they were attracted in the future. I also examined differences across gender, mental health licensure, and years since graduation in relation to the outcome. Sexual attractions appear to exist between SPPs and their AC and should be discussed during training to normalize the experience and increase the likelihood of them discussing such attractions when they occur. Further, self-reflection and supervision are recommended approaches to managing such feelings and to minimize the chances of harming ACs.

In sport, the ability to perform under heightened levels of pressure is one of the largest differences between those who are successful and those who are not. There are a number of phenomena associated with breakdowns in an athlete’s performance in high pressure environments, collectively known as paradoxical performances (Baumeister & Showers, 1986). The two most prevalent and researched forms of paradoxical performance are the yips and choking. Although choking has been identified as playing a key role in understanding the yips, to date, no literature has explored these phenomena simultaneously. The current literature highlights potential mechanisms which may explain the yips and choking, such as the Attentional Control Theory (Eysenck & Derekshan, 2011) and the Conscious Processing Hypothesis (Masters, 1992). However, there is limited literature on the potential predictors that may increase the susceptibility of both these paradoxical performances and those which do, focus on golf. There are three aims of this thesis. The first aim was to develop a definition that best encompasses all aspects of the yips. This was achieved by conducting a systematic review of the yips literature which supported the development of a new two dimensional yips model including individuals with both focal dystonia and choking (type-III). The second aim was to investigate potential predictors associated with both the yips and choking that was achieved by completing two studies. The first explored the lived experiences of elite level archers who have experienced both choking and the yips and revealed a number of potential predictors associated with both the yips and choking. The second study tested these predictors using online questionnaires with elite level archers and golfers, and confirmed two discrete predictive models for yips and choking. The final aim of the thesis was to investigate the potential mechanisms associated with performance under pressure. A lab-based study where golfers and archers performed under both high and low pressure found that pressure elicited a range of psychological, physiological and kinematic changes in performance. The proposed two dimensional model from the systematic review received initial support for its application. A number of participants met the criteria for each of the different classifications: type-I, those who experience focal dystonia like symptoms; type-II, those who experience choking like symptoms and; type-III, those who experience both focal dystonia and choking like symptoms. This thesis also highlights the role of social predictors of the yips and choking with perfectionistic self-presentation being the most influential for those susceptible for the yips. These findings will enable practitioners to have a better understanding to effectively classify those who experience choking and the yips. This will allow practitioners to more effectively intervene with those who experience different classifications of the yips. The thesis also highlights the issues in the current literature that surround the measurement and conceptualisation of the yips type-I, type-II and type-III behaviour and provides future directions.

Certified Athletic Trainers (ATC) have a critical role in collegiate athletic settings and are in close contact with athletes. Psychology plays an important role in the lives of athletes, yet ATCs may not have the training to differentiate between normal stress in athletes and real psychological problems. The primary purpose of this study was to describe perceptions of ATCs regarding their qualifications to use psychological techniques when dealing with athletes, in addition to describing accessibility and incidence of referral to psychological services. Two hundred schools from two NCAA Divisions (I and II) were randomly selected and sent a questionnaire to be completed by a certified staff athletic trainer. The results indicated Division I schools have greater access and referrals to sport psychologists than do Division II schools. It was also evident that athletic trainers knew they need more education to properly implement certain psychological techniques when dealing with their athletes.

The aim of this study was to extend existing literature on the martial arts by examining the experience of kendo (Japanese fencing) participants. In-depth, existential phenomenological interviews were conducted with nine (eight males and one female) currently competitive kendo practitioners (i.e., kenshi), ranging in age from 19 to 40 years. All participants were of Japanese descent but resided in the United States at the time of the interviews. Thematic analysis of the transcripts revealed several prominent aspects of the lives and performance experiences of kenshi. The most important finding was the relatively equal emphasis participants placed on the mastery of kendo technique, aesthetically elegant skill execution, and victory in competition. Other aspects of kenshi’s experience included the building of strong relationships with influential sensei (i.e., instructors), the display of proper manners and etiquette, and the learning of life lessons.

p { margin-bottom: 0.08in; }a:link { color: rgb(0, 0, 255); Special needs sport literature is narrow-focused and generally focuses on the different disabilities of athletes (Howe & Jones, 2006). Additionally, cheerleading is generally researched in terms of disordered eating and body image (Thompson & Digsby, 2004), high injury risk (Jacobson, Hubbard & Redus, 2004; Jacobson, Redus, & Palmer, 2005), and over-sexualization of youth (Adams & Bettis, 2003). While several websites and resources for coaches of special needs athletes provide information for how a coach should feel, there is a lack of empirical research to support these claims (www.specialolympics.org; www.usasf.net). In the present study, a phenomenological interview approach was taken for eight coaches of special needs cheerleading squads. The interviews were thematized to reveal figure themes of: (a) enthusiasm; (b) parents; (c) us vs. “them”; and (d) improvements vs. struggles. Additionally, there were two sub-ground themes of the athletes and outside help. All of the figure themes and the sub-ground themes were encompassed by the ground theme of community. Connections to previous research, practical implications, and future directions of the present findings are discussed.