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There are many questions about the long-term effects of college athletic participation that have not been studied, especially issues regarding gender. Because of socialization and the structural differences in men's and women's sports, the long-term effects of sports participation may be different for men and women athletes. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of competition through college sports participation on job satisfaction and life satisfaction of former men and women athletes. Research was conducted on men and women who participated at the college level in basketball, track and field, swimming and diving, and tennis from 1983-1988 at Virginia Tech. Data were collected using a mail survey adapted from the Sports Orientation Questionnaire (Gill & Deeter, 1988), the revised and abridged version of the Life Satisfaction Index-A ( Kleiber, Greendorfer, Blinde, & Samdahl, 1987) and the Index of Job Satisfaction (Brayfield & Rothe, 1951). Data were analyzed using t-tests and regression models to determine the relationship between the independent variables of gender and level of competitiveness and the dependent variables of job satisfaction and life satisfaction. No significant difference was found between gender and its relationship to job satisfaction and life satisfaction. This result may have great importance given that women experience discrimination in sports participation. It seems that women are able to overcome these adverse conditions and achieve levels of job satisfaction and life satisfaction equal to men. Level of competitiveness was not statistically significant either; however this may be due to a small variance among the sample's level of competitiveness. / Master of Arts

The purpose of this project was to examine the factors affecting coaches with stress burnout. This project was intended for all coaches from high school to college level.

Thesis (MComm)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: In social psychology, social scientists have become interested in explaining social behaviour: how and why individuals become attached and why they pursue on-going close relationships. The investment model was developed that suggests how attachment to a relationship is formed. It has been suggested that the investment model can be applied to a wide variety of interpersonal relationships. In the same way as a relationship is formed between two individuals, the attachment that supporters have to a sports team is also formed. To understand the psychological connection supporters have to a sports team, the Psychological Continuum Model (PCM) was developed. PCM suggests supporters first become aware of a sports team, then supporters may become attracted, this leads to attachment to the sports team and allegiance to the sports team may then occur. Past research has focused on different aspects of the PCM. However, very few studies have yet explained how supporters become attached to a sports team. This study combines the PCM and the investment model to assess how supporters become attached to a sports team. Understanding the psychological connection that supporters have to a sports team was required thus, the Psychological Continuum Model (PCM) was used. How supporters become attached (based on the PCM) to a sports team was further understood by the investment model variables. Thus, the PCM was adapted and applied with the investment model. The study comprised of a 2x2x2 full factorial experimental research design. For the purposes of the study, respondents were first made aware of the sport, fistball. Respondents completed a questionnaire that was used to measure their attraction and attachment to a fistball team. During the interview, respondents were shown one of eight treatments, in the form of a newspaper clip on a poster that was manipulated using the investment model variables. The eight posters comprised of fictitious fistball teams to avoid any bias that may have been formed had another sport been chosen. There were 36 respondents per treatment group, ensuring that respondents could be split between the different levels of supporters. A repeat group was also conducted to ensure the validity of the study. The realised sample comprised of 318 respondents. The target population was South African supporters in LSM groups 8 to 10. Judgement sampling was used as no sampling frame exists for supporters. Respondents were selected in shopping malls in Gauteng due to the culturally diverse nature of the province. The results revealed that based on the level of support, attachment to a sports team varies. The results suggested that low supporters have a higher attraction than high supporters. High supporters are already attached to a sports team, and are not necessarily interested in being attracted to a different sports team. It would be recommended to attract high supporters by having initiatives that involve teams, where supporters‟ attachment to the team already exists. High supporters were considered to be those who were attached to a sports team. To package and deliver products and/or services most effectively, sport marketers should appeal to high supporters‟ attitudes, as it is their attitude that guides their behaviour. Based on the findings, there is an opportunity for sport marketers to encourage low supporters to become attached to a sports team by using the investment model variables. By incorporating social psychology with sport consumer behaviour, a better understanding of sport supporters was attained. In the same way that a dating relationship has various stages of courtship that may eventually lead to marriage, the relationship that supporters have with a sports team also goes through stages which may lead supporters who show allegiance. The study reveals that, similarly to a dating relationship where an attraction to an individual first needs to be formed, the type of sport plays a role in attracting supporters to a sports team. Likewise, whether an individual pursues a relationship depends on the investment model variables, which is also the case for supporters. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: In die sosiale sielkunde stel sosiaal-wetenskaplikes toenemend daarin belang om sosiale gedrag te verklaar: hoe en waarom individue geheg raak aan sosiale objekte en waarom hulle voortgesette verhoudings nastreef. Die beleggingsmodel, wat aan die hand doen hoe gehegtheid deur middel van ʼn verhouding tot stand gebring word, is ontwikkel. Daar word voorgestel dat die beleggingsmodel toegepas kan word op ʼn wye verskeidenheid van interpersoonlike verhoudings. Op dieselfde wyse waarop ʼn verhouding tussen twee individue gevorm word, word die verbintenis wat ondersteuners met ʼn sportspan het, ook verwesenlik. Ten einde die psigologiese verbintenis tussen ondersteuners en ʼn sportspan te verstaan, is die Psigologiese Kontinuummodel (PCM) ontwikkel. Die PCM suggereer dat ondersteuners eerstens van ʼn sportspan bewus word, dan moontlik aangetrokke voel tot die sportspan. Dit lei tot ʼn gehegtheid en moontlik uiteindelik getrouheid aan die sportspan. Vorige navorsing het die soeklig op verskillende aspekte van die PCM laat val, maar baie min ondersoeke het al verduidelik hoe ondersteuners ʼn verbintenis vorm met ʼn sportspan. Hierdie studie kombineer die PCM en die beleggingsmodel om vas te stel hoe ondersteuners ʼn verbintenis vorm met ʼn sportspan. Die PCM is gebruik omdat dit nodig was om die psigologiese verbintenis te verstaan wat ondersteuners met ʼn sportspan tot stand bring. Deur die veranderlikes van die beleggingsmodel in ag te neem, is daar verder lig gewerp op hoe ondersteuners geheg raak aan ʼn sportspan (gebaseer op die PCM). Die PCM is dus aangepas en tesame met die beleggingsmodel toegepas. In die studie is gebruik gemaak van ʼn 2x2x2 volle faktoriale eksperimentele navorsingsontwerp. Vir die doel van die studie is respondente eers bewus gemaak van die sport vuisbal. Die respondente het ʼn vraelys voltooi wat gebruik is om hul aangetrokkenheid tot en gehegtheid aan ʼn vuisbalspan te meet. Tydens die onderhoud is agt afsonderlike behandelings aan die respondente vertoon, elk in die vorm van ʼn koerantknipsel op ʼn plakkaat wat gemanipuleer is met die gebruik van die beleggingsmodel se veranderlikes. Die agt plakkate het fiktiewe vuisbalspanne uitgebeeld om enige vooroordeel uit te skakel wat moontlik sou voorkom as ʼn ander sportsoort gebruik was. Daar was 36 respondente per behandelingsgroep om te verseker dat respondente tussen die verskillende vlakke van ondersteuners verdeel kon word. ‟n Herhalingsgroep is ook gebruik om die geldigheid van die studie te verseker. Die gerealiseerde steekproef het uit 318 respondente bestaan. Die teikenpopulasie was Suid-Afrikaanse ondersteuners in LSM-groepe 8 tot 10 aangesien hulle die meeste mediablootstelling ontvang het. Daar is gebruik gemaak van oordeelsteekproefneming, aangesien geen steekproefraamwerk vir ondersteuners bestaan nie. Respondente is in groot winkelsentrums in Gauteng geselekteer vanweë die kultuurdiverse aard van die provinsie. Die resultate het getoon dat, gebaseer op die vlak van ondersteuning, die vlak van gehegtheid aan ʼn sportspan varieer. Die resultate suggereer dat laevlakondersteuners meer geneë is om ʼn verbintenis te vorm as hoëvlakondersteuners. Hoëvlakondersteuners het reeds „n band met ʼn sportspan en voel nie noodwendig die behoefte om ʼn verhouding met ʼn ander sportspan te vestig nie. Daar word dus aanbeveel dat hoëvlakondersteuners aangetrek word deur inisiatiewe aan te bied waarby spanne betrokke is wat reeds vaste aanhangers het. Hoëvlakondersteuners is beskou as diegene wat ʼn verbintenis met ʼn sportspan het. Ten einde produkte en/of dienste op die effektiefste wyse te verpak en te lewer behoort sportbemarkers op hoëvlakondersteuners se ingesteldheid te fokus, aangesien dit hul ingesteldheid is wat hul gedrag rig. Volgens die bevindinge bestaan daar ʼn geleentheid vir sportbemarkers om, deur van die beleggingsmodel se veranderlikes gebruik te maak, laevlakondersteuners aan te moedig om hulle aan ʼn sportspan te verbind. Deur sosiale sielkunde met sportverbruikersgedrag te kombineer is ʼn beter verstaan van sportondersteuners bereik. Net soos daar tydens ʼn liefdesverhouding verskillende stadiums van hofmakery is wat uiteindelik tot ʼn huwelik kan lei, gaan die verhouding wat ondersteuners met ʼn sportspan het ook deur stadiums wat uiteindelik getroue ondersteuners kan oplewer. Die studie toon ook dat, net soos in ʼn verhouding waar individue eers net met mekaar uitgaan, en hulle later sterk aangetrokke raak tot mekaar, daar in sport ook ʼn dieper verhouding moet ontwikkel. Dit blyk dat die soort sport ʼn belangrike rol speel wanneer ondersteuners tot ʼn sportspan aangetrek word. Net soos by ʼn liefdesverhouding, hang die sportondersteuner se verbintenis ook af van die veranderlikes van die beleggingsmodel. produkte en/of dienste op die effektiefste wyse te verpak en te lewer behoort sportbemarkers op hoëvlakondersteuners se ingesteldheid te fokus, aangesien dit hul ingesteldheid is wat hul gedrag rig. Volgens die bevindinge bestaan daar 'n geleentheid vir sportbemarkers om, deur van die beleggingsmodel se veranderlikes gebruik te maak, laevlakondersteuners aan te moedig om hulle aan 'n sportspan te verbind. Deur sosiale sielkunde met sportverbruikersgedrag te kombineer is ʼn beter verstaan van sportondersteuners bereik. Net soos daar tydens 'n liefdesverhouding verskillende stadiums van hofmakery is wat uiteindelik tot 'n

Thesis (MScSportSc)-- Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: There is a relative lack of information in sport psychology research literature about the role of psychological dimensions in team sport – especially in soccer (Reilly et al., 2000). It is consequently not surprising that research on applied strategies in soccer has concentrated mainly on technical, tactical and physiological aspects. This defies anecdotal evidence and literature reports alluding to the importance of psychological and team factors in achieving sport excellence. This study examined the role of mental toughness, psychological skills and team cohesion in soccer performance. It also considered differences between individuals from different playing positions regarding these modalities. A total of 263 male soccer players aged between 17 and 32 years from 16 South African tertiary institutions participated in the study. A cross-sectional study design was used to determine the players’ mental toughness, psychological skills and team cohesion by means of the Sports Mental Toughness Questionnaire (SMTQ); the Athletic Coping Skills Inventory-28 (ACSI-28); and the Group Environmental Questionnaire (GEQ). The final log standings at the 2012 University Sport South Africa (USSA) Soccer Championship were used as an indication of team performance. The results yielded differences between successful and less successful teams with regard to age, previous tournament experience, and the time players had been part of their respective teams. There were no significant differences between the teams for any of the mental toughness and psychological skills scores. However, group cohesion did play a role in team performance. The more successful teams scored better than their less successful counterparts in the following subscales of the GEQ: Individual attraction to group-social and individual attraction to group-task. However, the less successful teams scored better than their more successful counterparts regarding group integration-task, and group integration-social. Practical significant differences of moderate magnitude were observed for five of the 96 player positional comparisons. Midfielders scored higher than the defenders and forwards on the control subscale of the SMTQ. The forwards recorded higher scores than midfielders with regard to the GEQ subscale of group integration-task, whereas goalkeepers yielded higher scores than midfielders on the group integration-task subscale. There was a difference between the scores on the constancy subscale of the SMTQ where the defenders outscored the midfielders. No positional differences were recorded for any of the psychological skills. The overall results revealed that at the developmental level of the study sample, team cohesion and other moderating variables might be the key to enhanced performance of soccer teams. In addition, the results supported the general assumption that a relationship exists between playing positions in team sports and various psychological variables. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Daar is ’n relatiewe gebrek aan navorsingsliteratuur in sportsielkunde oor die rol van sielkundige dimensies in spansoorte – veral in sokker (Reilly et al., 2000). Dit is gevolglik logies dat navorsing oor toegepaste strategieë in sokker hoofsaaklik fokus op tegniese, taktiese en fisiologiese aspekte. Dit druis in teen anekdotiese getuienis en opvattings wat dui op die belangrikheid van sielkundige en spanfaktore in die bereiking van sportuitnemendheid. Hierdie studie ondersoek die rol van geestelike taaiheid, sielkundige vaardighede en spankohesie in sokkerprestasie. Dit bestudeer ook die verskille tussen individue van verskillende speelposisies met betrekking tot hierdie modaliteite. ’n Totaal van 263 manlike sokkerspelers tussen die ouderdom van 17 en 32 jaar, van 16 Suid-Afrikaanse tersiêre inrigtings, het aan hierdie ondersoek deelgeneem. ’n Dwarsdeursnitstudie-ontwerp is gebruik om spelers se geestelike taaiheid, sielkundige vaardighede en spankohesie te bepaal deur middel van die Sports Mental Toughness Questionnaire (SMTQ); die Athletic Coping Skills Inventory-28 (ACSI-28); en die Group Environmental Questionnaire (GEQ). Die finale posisies van spanne op die punteleer na afloop van die 2012 Universiteit Sport Suid-Afrika (USSA) sokkertoernooi is gebruik as aanduiding van hul prestasie. Die resultate het verskille opgelewer tussen suksesvolle-en minder-suksesvolle spanne met betrekking tot ouderdom, vorige toernooi-ervaring, en die tydperk wat spelers lede van hul onderskeie spanne was. Daar was geen beduidende tellingverskille tussen spanne rakende enige van die geestelike taaiheid en sielkundige vaardighede nie. Groepkohesie het egter ’n rol in spanprestasie gespeel. Die meer-suksesvolle spanne het beter gevaar as die minder-suksesvolle spanne in die volgende subskale van die GEQ: Individuele aantreklikheid van die groep-sosiaal; Individuele aantreklikheid van die groep-taak. Die minder-suksevolle spanne het egter beter gevaar as die meer-suksesvolle spanne met betrekking tot: Groepintegrasie-taak, en Groepintegrasie-sosiaal. Prakties beduidende verskille is waargeneem vir vyf van die 96 speelposisie-vergelykings. Middelveldspelers het hoër tellings behaal as verdedigers en voorspelers op die beheer-subskaal van die SMTQ. Voorspelers het beter tellings aangeteken as middelveldspelers op die GEQ subskaal groepintegrasie-taak; terwyl doelwagters hoër tellings as middelveldspelers op die subskaal groepintegrasie-taak aangeteken het. Daar was ’n verskil in die konstantheid-subskaal van die SMTQ waar verdedigers beter as middelveldspelers gevaar het. Daar was geen beduidende verskille tussen speelposisies rakend enige van die sielkundige vaardighede nie. Die oorkoepelende bevindinge dui daarop dat op die ontwikkelingsvlak van die studiesteekproef, spankohesie, en ander prestasiedimensies moontlik die sleutel bevat vir verhoogde prestasie-uitkomste van sokkerspanne. Verder ondersteun die resultate die algemene aanname dat daar ’n verband bestaan tussen speelposisies in spansportsoorte en verskeie sielkundige veranderlikes.

Applied sport psychology consultation is a relatively new phenomenon with limited empirical underpinnings. The purpose of the study was to evaluate three applied sport psychology consultant personal and professional characteristics within Strong's social influence model that have been suggested to impact consultants' effectiveness in working directly with athletes and their performance problems. The three consultant characteristics were academic training, past athletic experience, and interpersonal skill. Division I female athletes (N = 187) read written preconsultation information and watched a 10- minute vignette between a consultant and an athlete. Participants completed the Counselor Rating Form-Short (CRFS), the Sport Psychology Consultant Evaluation Form (CEF), and questions concerning willingness to work with the consultant. The data from the dependent measures were analyzed by a 2 (level of consultant academic training) X 2 (level of consultant past athletic experience) X 2 (level of consultant interpersonal skill) MANOVA. Results indicated that applied sport psychology consultants' academic training and past athletic experience had only limited influence on the participants' perceptions about the consultants. The Division I female athletes unambiguously rated consultants with positive interpersonal skills more favorably on all dependent measures regardless of the consultants' level of academic training or past athletic experience. Directions for future research and implication of the findings on training and certification in applied sport psychology are discussed.

The present investigation attempted to determine whether imagery combined with relaxation (VMBR) facmlitated karate performance more effectively than either imagery or relaxation alone. Each subject (N=30) was randomly assigned to either a VMBR, relaxation, imagery or placebo control condition. Trait anxiety tests were administered at the beginning and the end of the six week test period. Performance tests were administered at the final class period along with precompetitive state anxiety. Trait anxiety results indicated a reduction in trait anxiety for all groups. State anxiety results indicated that the VIYBR and relaxation groups exhibited less state anxiety than the imagery and control groups. Performance results produced a main effect only for sparring with the VMBR group exhibiting better performance than all other groups.

Determining the factors that contribute to mental toughness development in athletes has become a focus for researchers as coaches, athletes, and others extol its influence on performance success. In this study we examined a model of mental toughness development based on achievement goal theory, assessing the relations between motivational climates, goal orientations, and mental toughness. Five hundred ninety-nine varsity athletes, representing 13 different sports from six different high schools in a southwestern United States school district, participated in the study. Athletes completed self-report measures assessing parent, peer, and coach motivational climates, goal orientations, and their mental toughness. Initially, I examined the measurement model and found it fit the data well both in the exploratory (SRMR = .06; CFI = .94) and confirmatory (SRMR = .06; CFI = .95) samples. Second, the structural model was examined and found to fit the data well in both the exploratory (SRMR = .08; CFI = .93) and confirmatory samples (SRMR = .07, CFI = .95). Parent task-involving climate, (β = .55; p < .05) and coach task-involving climate (β = .32; p < .05), but not peer task-involving climate (β = .05), were associated with task goal orientation (R2 = .57). Ego goal orientation (R2 = .32) was explained by peer ego-involving climate (β = .15; p < .05), parent ego-involving climate (β = .39; p < .05), and coach ego-involving climate (β = .16; p < .05). Finally, only task goal orientation (β = .75; p < .05) was related to the athletes’ mental toughness (R2 = .56); the ego goal orientation pathway was not significant (β = .04). These results speak to the potential positive influence of parents and coaches on athletes’ mental toughness through their endorsement of task-involving messages and pursuits leading to the development of a task goal orientation.