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This study investigates the psychology of risk taking, and in particular the personality profiles associated with different physical risk taking behaviours. It was hypothesised that there may be three fundamental approaches to risk: 'Risk avoiders' avoid activities they perceive to contain risk, 'risk reducers' participate in high risk activities in spite of the risks involved, and 'risk optimisers' who are motivated by the exposure to risk. An appropriate measure of subjective risk assessments was not identified in the existing literature, and the 27-item Physical Risk Assessment Inventory (PRAI) psychometric measure was therefore developed. After initial piloting the PRAI was administered to 407 subjects. Subsequent analyses revealed that two oblique factors accounted for much of the variance in physical risk assessments, and these were initially identified as "Sports" and "Health" factors. A wide ranging test battery (including the EPQ-R and selected scales of the ZKPQ) was th en administered to 113 subjects, and further analyses suggested that high risk sports and health risk behaviours were associated with independent psychological profiles. Health risk behaviours were associated with an "Antisocial" factor that was identified by high social and physical risk propensity, Sensation Seeking and Psychoticism. The participation in high risk sports loaded on a second "Venturesomeness" factor that was associated with high confidence, physical risk propensity, Sensation Seeking, peer behaviours and being male. A third "Physical Risk Assessment" factor was associated with high physical risk assessments, being female, and low Addiction scores. Multiple regression analyses suggested that 38% of health risk behaviours, and 60% of sports risk behaviours could be predicted by the variables included in this study. Convergent qualitative data provides additional support for the validity of thes fore appears to be limited to the role of Sensation Seeking and physical risk optimisation.

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Thesis (Ed.D.)--Boston University

Thesis (Ed.D.)--Boston University / PLEASE NOTE: Boston University Libraries did not receive an Authorization To Manage form for this thesis or dissertation. It is therefore not openly accessible, though it may be available by request. If you are the author or principal advisor of this work and would like to request open access for it, please contact us at open-help@bu.edu. Thank you. / The purpose of this study was to develop and validate a new measure of mental toughness in sport. The role of mental toughness in sport has been characterized as key in assisting athletes to obtain success by optimizing practice, overcome failures, and develop the mental skills necessary to win (Norris, 1999). A literature review concluded with six concepts (hardiness, coping, self-efficacy, mindset, resilience, and optimism) being used to develop an 80-item instrument measuring mental toughness on a 5-point Likert scale (always-never). Athletes (N=359, 195 males, 164 females, mean age = 17.57, SD = 3.4) drawn from a variety of sports were administered the Inventory of Mental Toughness Factors in Sport (IMTF-S) during the spring of 2011. Item analysis and principal component analysis yielded a four-factor 48-item model with an overall reliability (Cronbach's alpha) score of .925. The mental toughness factors and corresponding reliability scores were labeled as follows: Identification (.933), Negation (.812), Determination (.765), and Motivation (.890). Test-retest reliability measures were also obtained on a sample of 25 athletes (r= .892). Concurrent validity was demonstrated (r= .798, p ≤ .001) by comparing a set of scores (N= 75) on the IMTF-S and the Psychological Performance Inventory (PPI; Loehr, 1986). Predictive validity was assessed by comparing means of three sample's scores with ratings of their respective coaches. One independent samples t-test on a high school boys lacrosse team (N=18) indicated that the IMTF-S may have predictive properties (p= .021), however two other samples (women's elite field hockey, N=19) and junior A ice hockey (N=24) revealed non-significant findings when coaches ratings were compared to athlete self-assessment. Finally, correlation analysis found no significant relationships between mental toughness and age or experience. The results of this study provide empirical evidence for the valid use of the IMTF-S in measuring mental toughness in athletes. Perhaps of greater importance is that this study bolsters the existing research on mental toughness and further promotes its identification and development in assisting athletes in overcoming high-pressured and adverse conditions in their sporting environments. / 2999-01-01

by Woo Mei Sum. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1998. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 63-71). / Abstract and questionnaire also in Chinese. / ABSTRACT --- p.i / ACKNOWLEDGEMENT --- p.ii / TABLE OF CONTENTS --- p.iii / LIST OF TABLES --- p.iv / LIST OF APPENDICES --- p.v / Chapter CHAPTER I- --- INTRODUCTION --- p.1 / Chapter CHAPTER II- --- METHOD --- p.17 / Chapter CHAPTER III- --- RESULTS --- p.25 / Chapter CHAPTER IV- --- DISCUSSION --- p.47 / REFERENCE --- p.63 / APPENDICES --- p.72

Cognitive effort has been identified as the basis of the contectual interference (Cl) effect (Lee, Swinnen, & Serrien, 1994). It has been argued that higher levels of cognitive activity related to either the evaluation of movement information (encoding) or the retrieval of movement plans are demanded by the conditions of random rather than blocked practice. Current theories of skill acquisition appear to more heavily emphasize evaluative/encoding than retrieval processes. Furthermore, a review of evidence from research on the knowledge of results (KR) and observational learning implicates the critical role of evaluative processes as well. A series of three experiments was designed to (a) test the isomorphism of evaluative processes and cognitive effort within the contextual interference paradigm, and (b) use the Cl phenomenon as a way to explore the more general role of evaluative processes in motor skill acquisition. The typical Cl effect was replicated in Experiment 1 using three spatial variations of a multi-segment arm movement task. However, this experiment featured the co-occurrence of differential demands for both encoding variability and retrieval practice. In Experiment 2, one of the variations from Experiment 1 was practiced within the context of two unrelated video games. The results showed that no acquisition or retention performance differences emerged between blocked and random practice groups. These results suggest that the role of retrieval practice as the basis of the Cl effect should be questioned. Experiment 3 A replicated Experiment 1 with pans of blocked and random groups. In Experiment 3B, using a second set of three spatial variations, an attempt was made to reduce differential encoding variability while keeping differential retrieval practice intact between one pair of blocked and random groups (verbalize groups). The blocked group was required to evaluate and associate the features of each pattern variation during the acquisition phase, and to verbalize their thoughts. A random group was also required to verbalize the cognitive strategies they used to learn the patterns. The co-occurrence of differential encoding variability and retrieval was maintained for the remaining pair of blocked and random groups (control groups). The results of Experiment 1 were replicated in Experiment 3A and by the control groups in Experiment 3B. In Experiment 3B, relative retention and retention performance improved to a greater extent for the blocked verbalize than the blocked control group. However, relative retention and retention performance were not similar between the blocked verbalize and random groups, indicating that the evaluation of pattern variations in isolation does not appear to be an effective intervention with which to reduce the demands for differential encoding variability between blocked and random groups. Analysis of qualitative data obtained in Experiment 3B indicated differences between blocked and random groups in the degree to which the features of the spatial patterns were compared, suggesting that information derived from single task evaluation may not be equivalent to the information derived from multiple task comparison. Results are discussed within Glenberg's (1979) component levels theory. Insight into the nature of the cognitive processes underlying the Cl effect may have implications for a general explanation of motor skill acquisition. The relationship between cognitive effort, the development of knowledge, and skill acquisition is outlined in a preliminary framework for a unified theory of skill acquisition. The ability of the proposed framework to incorporate a range of experimental data and theoretical views is discussed. / Graduate

<p>The aim was to examine whether the Swedish Armed Forces can use mental training to develop the soldiers and officers in the military profession, a secondary objective was to examine how mental training methods can be integrated into the Swedish Armed Forces' daily activities. The study was carried out in the form of a literature review. The search of literature was done in scientific and military data bases, and retrieval from the Department of Leadership and Management (ILM) in Karlstad. The literature and articles were reviewed which resulted in only 19 out of 64 collected works were judged to have acceptable scientific quality and be of relevance for the topic. The results of the survey show that the use of mental training techniques goal setting, imagery, self-talk and relaxation strategies can produce positive effects for individual development of soldiers and officers. First, by allowing them to improve performance and stress management ability, secondly by creating motivation. An integration of the mental training techniques requires a training of officers carried out by experts and an individual motivation in soldiers.</p>

The aim was to examine whether the Swedish Armed Forces can use mental training to develop the soldiers and officers in the military profession, a secondary objective was to examine how mental training methods can be integrated into the Swedish Armed Forces' daily activities. The study was carried out in the form of a literature review. The search of literature was done in scientific and military data bases, and retrieval from the Department of Leadership and Management (ILM) in Karlstad. The literature and articles were reviewed which resulted in only 19 out of 64 collected works were judged to have acceptable scientific quality and be of relevance for the topic. The results of the survey show that the use of mental training techniques goal setting, imagery, self-talk and relaxation strategies can produce positive effects for individual development of soldiers and officers. First, by allowing them to improve performance and stress management ability, secondly by creating motivation. An integration of the mental training techniques requires a training of officers carried out by experts and an individual motivation in soldiers.

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