Although the use of monetary incentives as motivational tools has been studied by previous researchers, the mechanism of the relationship between monetary incentives and behavior/performance remains poorly understood. The purpose of this quasi-experimental investigation was to explore the relationship between 3 levels of monetary incentives ($0, $3, and $10) and the athletic performance of adolescent male soccer players. The moderating effect of perceived physical self-efficacy or intrinsic motivation on the relationship between athletic performance and monetary incentives was also investigated. The framework for the study was comprised of expectancy theory, the theory of planned behavior, and self-determination theory. Study participants included a convenience sample of 16 adolescent male soccer players between the ages of 11 and 13 who played on a youth soccer league in the Midwestern United States. The independent variable was level of monetary incentive, and the dependent variable was athletic performance (time on the 50-yard dash). Intrinsic motivation was assessed using the Sport Motivation Scale. Perceived physical self-efficacy was assessed via participants' scores on the Physical Self-Efficacy Scale for Children. Analysis, which included a repeated measures linear mixed-effects model and post-hoc pairwise comparisons, revealed that players' athletic performance increased as monetary incentives increased. Intrinsic motivation and perceived physical self-efficacy had no statistically significant interaction effect on the relationship between athletic performance and monetary incentives. Findings shed light on the potential usefulness of monetary incentives among male adolescents, and may be used by coaches to foster a mindset of achievement and goal-orientation.

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Section A is a review of the current literature on sports involvement with respect to people with learning disabilities. It begins by describing the health status of people with learning disabilities and provides a context of sport and wellbeing in the general population. It continues by describing four reviews of the literature exploring people with learning disabilities with respect to sports involvement. This section ends with a description of the Special Olympics research and suggests future research needs in this area. Section B describes a quantitative cross-sectional study comparing two groups of sports active and non-active people with learning disabilities using several psychological measures. Objectives. There is evidence that people with learning disabilities have poorer mental and physical wellbeing compared with that of the wider population. The aim of this study was to explore whether a group of people with learning disabilities involved in sport differed in terms of psychological well-being compared with a group not involved in sport. Design. A cross sectional design was employed comparing two groups, sports active and non-active on the variables: Self-esteem, quality of life, stress levels and social networks. Methods. Seventy four participants were recruited across South East England. They completed a number of psychological measures. Results. Analysis revealed that self-esteem, quality of life, social networks and stress were all significantly correlated with Special Olympics involvement. A logistic regression analysis was used to explore whether scores on these variables were able to predict sport membership. Self-esteem was found to be a high predictor of group membership, those in the Special Olympics having higher self-esteem. Conclusions. The findings provide further evidence of a positive association between sport involvement and increased psychological wellbeing. The implications of these findings for theory and future research into the relationship between sport and psychological wellbeing within the learning disabled population is considered. Section C is a critical appraisal of the quantitative study that considers four aspects: research skills; amendments to the study if it were replicated; how the study may have influenced clinical practice; and finally, further research and methods relating to this area.

Despite growing interest into the role of physiotherapists in providing psychological rehabilitation to athletes during sport injury, very little research exists outside North America, Australia, and New Zealand (e.g., Hemmings & Povey, 2002). Thus, the main purpose of this research was to explore the role of UK chartered physiotherapists in the process of psychological rehabilitation from sport injuries. This thesis consists of four studies. With the intention to gain further insights into the physiotherapists’ views on the psychological aspects of their work, study one used the Physiotherapists and Sport Psychology Questionnaire (PSPQ; Hemmings & Povey, 2002) in a national survey with 361 UK chartered physiotherapists working in sport medicine. The results from the survey provided useful insights into the ways in which psychological interventions are currently employed in rehabilitation physiotherapy. In study two, these findings were explored further, by developing a questionnaire survey to explore chartered physiotherapists’ (N = 22) preferred method of sport psychology intervention training. With the purpose of gaining an insight into the physiotherapists’ personal experiences in using psychological interventions with injured athletes, study three adopted a qualitative approach, in which semi-structured interviews were conducted with seven UK chartered physiotherapists. The findings from the Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA; Smith, 1996) provided deeper understanding on physiotherapists current knowledge on, and their past experiences and opinions on using range of psychological interventions in their work with injured athletes. Similarly study four used semi-structured interviews and IPA with ten athletes who had previously encountered moderate or severe sport injuries requiring physiotherapy treatment. The findings revealed useful information on the physiotherapists’ role in providing psychological support and using psychological interventions in their work with injured athletes. In conclusion, the research presented in this thesis makes a contribution to knowledge by: (a) providing an insight into the views of chartered physiotherapists in the UK on psychological content of their practice, (b) making preliminary suggestions into how further training in sport psychology for chartered physiotherapists could be delivered, (c) enabling deeper understanding of physiotherapists current practices and past experiences in utilising selected psychological interventions in their work, and (d) giving a voice to injured athletes with regard to the role of physiotherapists in providing psychological support during sport injury rehabilitation.

It is well known that engaging in physical activity (PA) reduces the risk of developing non-communicable diseases and improves general health. However, at the time of this research, less than half of the UK population met the recommended levels of PA (DH, 2010). Physical activity referral schemes (PARS) are one of the interventions available in primary care (NICE, 2006a) for disease prevention and health improvement, despite a high dropout rate (Gidlow, 2005) and unknown long-term effectiveness (Pavey et al., 2011). The main aim of the four studies presented in this thesis was to explore the adherence and behaviour change towards PARS in Northamptonshire. The first study measured the long-term change in PA levels after participation in Activity on Referral (AOR). The key outcome was a significant increase in self-reported long-term PA levels (mean difference 1000 MET minutes/week) for 105 adhering participants from a total of 2228 participants. One in every 21 referred individuals self-reported an increase in PA at 12 months. To explore the high levels of non-adherence, an interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA; Smith, 1996) was conducted with seven non-adhering AOR participants. The findings showed that being listened to at the point of referral, a range of positive experiences during the induction, alternative opportunities to increase activity, and potential to re-engage in PARS were some of the factors that enhanced adherence. Even though currently the key behaviour change measure for a PA intervention is an increase in PA, there is no gold standard self-reporting PA measure. Therefore, the third study was a comparison that tested the applicability of the new General Practice Physical Activity Questionnaire (GPPAQ) and the internationally validated International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ). The GPPAQ is recommended to be used as a screening tool by health professionals for the latest PARS called Let‟s Get Moving (LGM). There was a significantly weak association between IPAQ and GPPAQ. Hence, the GPPAQ is only recommended to be used as a PA screening tool and not for evaluating PA levels for PARS research studies. The final study was based on the new LGM physical activity care pathway which included a brief intervention using Motivational Interviewing (MI), a communication style that elicits the individuals‟ ambivalence regarding PA. Eight out of 21 participants self-reported a PA increase at 6 months and the MI used during the PARS was coded at beginner level. The two PARS included in this thesis were compared for adherence; LGM adherence was 65% compared to 23% AOR adherence at 3 months. In conclusion, this research has demonstrated that PA levels do increase for PARS participants in the long term, but the dropout rate can be concerning. By using a mixed-methods approach, the lived experience of participants enhances the understanding of reasons behind non-adherence. The comparative study involving LGM and AOR samples showed that interventions with elements of MI might be a better investment of commissioned resources.

There is little literature that explains the relationship between intellectual disability (ID) and physical and sensory disabilities. A review conducted in 1987 indicated increased prevalence of physical health problems amongst people with ID (McLaren & Bryson, 1987). The current classification system used by the International Federation for Para Athletes with Intellectual Disability (INAS) does not take into account any relationship between ID and physical or sensory disabilities . The present study aimed to provide evidence to enable INAS to address the potential inequalities in the classification system and to add to understanding of the relationship between ID and physical and sensory disability. Participants (N=111) were recruited from regional and international sporting events for people with ID. IQ measurements were gained either from records or by administration of an assessment. All participants, with a trusted adult, were administered a semi-structured health interview. Findings indicated a weak negative correlation between IQ and additional physical disability. The data also suggested that level of additional physical disability negatively predicts athletic performance and there is some limited support for the suggestion that IQ positively predicts performance. The findings have implications for INAS and health/social care services.

Research suggests elite athletes have an equal, possibly higher, probability of developing mental ill-health as the general population. However understanding of these issues amongst athletes and coaches remains largely unknown. The perceptions of 20 elite athletes and 16 elite coaches of mental ill-health amongst elite athletes were explored. Two concurrent, three round Delphi methods, using descriptive statistics and thematic analysis, were used to compare groups’ responses. Athletes and coaches expressed different opinions and experiences of mental ill-health amongst elite athletes. However, both felt the pressure athletes place upon themselves is a significant contributing factor and that obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) and anxiety may be particularly prevalent. Whilst associated stigma was thought to be a barrier to support seeking, both groups felt sport and clinical psychologists would provide the most appropriate support, with coaches playing an important role. Implications for coaches, clinical and sport psychologists are explored and suggestions for future research are presented.

O desempenho no esporte de alto rendimento está associado a situações de desgastes físicos e psicológicos extremos tanto em treinamentos como em competições. A dor é um atributo constante na vida destes atletas e trata-se de uma experiência sensorial e emocional avaliada muitas vezes como negativa, associada a uma lesão real ou não que abrange aspectos fisiológicos, sociais e psíquicos. Assim, estudos com a intenção de dar significado a dor na percepção dos próprios atletas devem levar em conta a cultura do esporte e da modalidade, pois a cultura é um complexo de habilidades ou hábitos adquiridos pelo sujeito enquanto membro de um grupo social, fornecendo dados da identidade do ser atleta. Este estudo teve como objetivo analisar como as atletas olímpicas de Ginástica Rítmica experienciaram a dor e os seus significados em sua carreira esportiva. Para tanto foram investigadas as 18 atletas brasileiras que participaram dos Jogos Olímpicos de Verão em diferentes edições, sob a ótica dos Estudos Culturais, inspiração teórica para pensar produções culturais e as práticas sociais. A decisão por investigar esse grupo se estruturou por ser uma modalidade com grande dificuldade técnica, de profissionalização precoce e alto nível de desempenho, alcançados ainda na adolescência. A exigência excessiva e prematura do corpo, o envolvimento com as rotinas e o alto nível de dificuldade dos exercícios praticados predispõe as atletas a um maior risco de dor e sofrimento. O método utilizado foi a narrativa biográfica que proporcionou apreender por meio das memórias desse grupo de atletas a compreensão do significado da dor no esporte e na modalidade específica, apontando que esses significados são transmitidos através das gerações e relacionam-se com tradições e convenções grupais. As atletas criam sentidos para essas vivências através do discurso construído socialmente na modalidade; as experiências acumuladas dentro do grupo levam as participantes a uma expectativa do sofrimento; os vínculos estabelecidos geram a capacidade de simbolizar a dor; suportar o limite imposto pelo corpo faz parte da cultura da modalidade. Os sentidos que constituem o significado da dor permitiu compreender a essência dos conteúdos do que é e como se dá a experiência dolorosa de uma modalidade esportiva quando praticada em alto rendimento / High performance sports is associated with extreme physical and psychological wear in training and competition. Pain is a constant attribute in the lives of these athletes and it is a sensory and emotional experience often evaluated as negative, associated with a real physiological, social and psychic real or non-abreviant injury. Thus, studies with an intention of meaning and perception of the athletes themselves are taken into account the culture of the sport and the modality, because the culture is a complex of skills or habits acquired through a social factor. This study aimed to analyze how Olympic Rhythmic Gymnastics athletes experienced pain and their own meanings in their sports career. To that end, 18 Brazilian athletes participating in the Summer Olympics in different editions were investigated, from the perspective of Cultural Studies, theoretical inspiration to think about cultural productions and social practices. A decision to investigate this group was structured because it is a modality with great technical difficulty, of previous professionalization and a high level of performance, reached in adolescence. The excessive and premature requirement of the body, the involvement with routines and the high level of difficulty of the exercises practiced predispose as athletes to a greater risk of pain and suffering. The method used for the biographical narrative that allowed to apprehend through the medium of the memories of this group of athletes in the understanding of the meaning of pain without sport and in the specific modality, pointing out that these meanings are transmitted through sales and relate to group conventions and traditions. The athletes create meanings for these lives through the socially constructed discourse in the modality; the experiences as accumulated within the group they take as participants an expectation of suffering; the established bonds generate the capacity to symbolize pain; support more than the legal limit for the body is part of the sport culture. The senses that constitute the meaning of permible pain, namely the essence of the contents of what is like a painful experience of a sporting modality when practiced in high yield

O futebol é um esporte coletivo, em que desempenhos individuais podem definir o resultado de um jogo ou de um campeonato. Especialmente em cobranças de pênalti, o destino da partida encontra-se nos pés do cobrador. A ansiedade no momento das cobranças de pênalti em jogos de futebol de campo é um dos motivos que podem fazer com que um jogador de futebol não converta a cobrança em gol. Neste estudo experimental controlado foi testado um protocolo de biofeedback e psicologia cognitivo-comportamental com o objetivo de reduzir o estado de ansiedade em atletas de futebol amadores de futebol de campo de 15 e 16 anos de idade. Os participantes do grupo experimental foram avaliados antes de duas competições de pênaltis, que aconteceram antes e depois de quatro encontros de intervenção com o protocolo de biofeedback e psicologia cognitivo-comportamental para a redução de ansiedade dos jogadores de futebol que participaram do grupo ativo, em relação ao grupo controle / Soccer is a collective sport in which individual performances can define the outcome of a game or a championship. Especially at penalties shootouts, the destination of the match is at the feet of the penalty taker. Anxiety at the time of penalty kicks at soccer matches is one of the reasons why a soccer player may not score the goal. In this controlled experimental study, a protocol of biofeedback and cognitive-behavioral psychology was tested with the objective of reducing the state anxiety in 15 and 16 year old amateur soccer athletes. Participants in the experimental group were assessed before two penalty shoot-outs, which took place before and after four intervention sessions with a biofeedback and cognitive-behavioral psychology protocol. The results showed that the protocol was efficient as a method and effective in reducing the anxiety state of soccer players who participated in the experimental group, in comparison to the control group

The purpose of this programme of research was to investigate the existence and development of shared understanding between football dyads through quantitative and qualitative research methods. Research has considered the importance of shared understanding between team members (Williamson and Cox 2014, Gershgoren et al. 2016) but rarely dyads within teams (i.e. Blickensderfer et al. 2010). Study One attempted to establish the existence of shared understanding between twenty football dyads. Study Two explored the levels of shared understanding displayed by forty-five defensive football dyads in game situations that had either a clear correct course of action or when there was no clear correct course of action. Through an interview-based approach, Study Three investigated potential factors that could contribute to the development of shared understanding between football dyads, based on the suggestions of twelve football players. Through these different methods, the three studies have provided evidence to support the existence and development of shared understanding between football dyads. The main findings of the thesis (a) shared understanding exists between dyads who have experience performing together, (b) when dyads are in a situation where there is a clear and correct option available, they are more likely to choose the same option based on their own individual experience, (c) when dyads are in a situation where there is no clear and correct option available, they are more likely to pick the same option based on their experience performing together, (d) experience performing together, having an efficient relationship with their partner, effective communication methods between one another and the role of the coach facilitated the development of shared understanding between dyads and (e) these factors facilitate an effective shared mental model between dyads.