This bachelor thesis studies a sample of trepanned individuals/cranium from Sweden and Russia with the intention of uncovering similarities-  and or differences between the conducted trepanations  and their context.  Neolithic trepanned  cranium  found at the end of the 1800(s) and/or start of the 1900(s), generate frequent questions among scientist and scholars alike to this day. The motive for these interventions is unfortunately still unclear. However, the current prevailing belief within scholarly circles is that these procedures are intentional acts and/or even diverging ritualistic in their manner is gaining more sympathizers each day.

Bibliography: pages 177-205. / This thesis presents a reinterpretation of the late-Holocene hunter-gatherer archaeology of the Eland's Bay and Lambert's Bay areas of the western Cape. Marked changes in settlement, and subsistence over the last 4500 years had been previously suggested as having resulted from external factors, such as the environment and contact with incoming pastoralist groups. In contrast, this thesis presents hunter-gatherers as active role players in the transformation of their society and history. This was proposed as a result of an excavation and dating programme, palaeoenvironmental reconstructions with better resolved time sequences, and the use of an interpretative framework that emphasises possible changes in population numbers and in modes of production, as well as the consequences of these processes. Between 3500 and 2000 BP, population densities increased and residence permanence became more sedentary, both of which were easily accommodated by a productive environment. Solutions to social stress, resulting from landscape infilling, were not sought through migration, but through the formalization of ritual gatherings at Steenbokfontein Cave. During these gregarious occasions, proper codes of conducts were reinforced, inter- and intra-group conflict was mediated and peoples' identity with the local landscape was also asserted. Coinciding with the increase in population numbers after 3500 BP, subsistence was reorganized around the intensive collection of highly predictable and productive species, such as shellfish, tortoises and plants. Frequent snaring of small and territorial bovids almost completely replaced the hunting of large mobile game. A system of delayed returns was also central to coastal hunter-gatherer economy between 3000 and 2000 BP, whereby the collection, processing and storage of large quantities of shellfish meat was undertaken. The large-scale effort of this activity is attested by the massive build up of large shell middens termed "megamiddens". It seems likely that hunter- gatherers at this time obtained most of the necessary protein from marine resources. In addition to the pervasive and high levels of social stress, ecological stress became palpable as environmental conditions began to deteriorate after 2400 BP. Ritual intensification no longer provided a solution, and aggregation phases at Steenbokfontein Cave came to an end. Social networks amongst hunter-gatherer groups broke down as a consequence of their fission into smaller social units and withdrawal of some of them to the periphery of the study area. The arrival of stock-owning groups around 2000 BP triggered a series of different responses by hunter-gatherers. These varied from cooperative behaviour, assimilation, avoidance and/or conflict. It is argued that these differences were shaped to a large extent by variable socio- economic configurations amongst pre-contact hunter-gatherer groups. The diet of the newly reconfigured and diverse hunter-gatherer society became overall more mixed after 2000 BP. Shellfish gathering became less important, some hunting of large game was practiced, with most of the diet provided by plant collection, snaring of small antelopes and the capture of tortoises.

Analytical methods for extracting detailed functional and technological information from Middle Stone Age stone tools were refined and developed. This was achieved within a theoretical framework that insists on multiple-stranded evidence for behavioural interpretation. The methods include micro-residue analysis, macrofracture analysis and usewear analysis. Stone tool assemblages – spanning the period between about 100 000 and 50 000 years ago – from Sibudu Cave, Umhlatuzana Rock Shelter, Klasies River Cave 2 and Blombos Cave were analysed. Results derived from macrofracture analyses, that are often conducted as an initial study to assess whether tool classes could have been used in hunting weapons, are used to formulate the following working hypotheses for Stone Age hunting technologies in South Africa: a) some pre-Howiesons Poort pointed tools were used as hafted butchery knives, while others could have been used to tip hunting weapons; b) Howiesons Poort backed tools were probably used as interchangeable pieces in hafted hunting weapons; c) post-Howiesons Poort points were used to tip hunting weapons; d) Later Stone Age hunting technologies were different from those practiced during the Middle Stone Age. The macrofracture results also provided interesting comparable data showing distinct time-related clustering of the results. Although more tools that could have functioned as hunting weapons must be analysed to evaluate the authenticity of these observations, the results suggest that macrofracture studies are important for the study of change in Stone Age hunting behaviours. The main methodological contribution of this thesis is micro-residue analysis. Advances in this method developed from blind tests on replicated flakes with residues derived from the processing of plant and animal products. Lessons learned from previous blind tests shaped the new research reported here and lead to improved methodology and interpretative skills. The last test in the series of four resulted in the most accurate interpretations because, prior to Test 4, iv identification difficulties experienced during the first three blind tests were addressed through replication. The new work reported here highlights some of the difficulties that can be experienced in the morphological identification of microscopic organic residues, particularly the distinction between animal and plant residues. It is specifically recommended that multi-stranded evidence be used for the identification of animal and plant residues. Micro-residue analysis of archaeological samples provided direct evidence for functional and hafting interpretations. These can be used to evaluate the hypotheses based on the results of macrofracture analyses and to provide data for further detailed interpretations. For example, it is shown that: a) retouched points from the Still Bay were used as knives hafted to wooden handles; b) segments from the Howiesons Poort were probably hafted in bone and wood shafts in different hafting configurations that varied during the span of the technocomplex; c) Howiesons Poort segments were mostly used on animal material; d) ochre was mixed into the adhesive recipes during the post-Howiesons Poort, the Howiesons Poort and possibly during the Still Bay technocomplexes at Sibudu Cave. Thus, the multi-analytical approach followed throughout the study contributes evidence for the early development of sophisticated and variable hunting and hafting technologies used by anatomically modern humans in South Africa. Our current knowledge of behavioural trends during the Middle Stone Age has been expanded, allowing rare glimpses into the everyday activities of people living in the deep past. Perceptions of a static, pre-modern technology and unvaried faunal exploitation during the Middle Stone Age in southern Africa are unfounded.

Den gropkeramiska kulturen är förknippad med kustlandskap och ett osteologiskt material bestående av fisk och säl, men kulturen fanns också vid inlandets insjöar där fisk och bävern istället är framträdande i det osteologiska materialet. Vindförbergs udde är en av flera gropkeramiska inlandslokaler belägen i Dalarna, det som utmärker Vindförberg från andra omkringliggande lokaler är lokalens höga och branta placering i landskapet. Syftet med uppsatsen är att tolka vad för slags lokal Vindförbergs udde varit, varför bävern är framträdande i gropkeramiska inlandslokaler, och hur inlandslokaler skiljer sig från eller liknar kustlokaler. För att svara på frågorna har en osteologisk analys av stenåldersmaterial från Vindförberg gjorts, och en komparativ metod har tillämpats där det osteologiska materialet jämförs med två kustlokaler i Hälsingland, Gästrikland och en inlandslokal i Dalarna. Diskussionen har fokuserat på Vindförberg som lokal och bävern som ett betydande djur, utifrån de frågeställningarna har likheter och skillnader mellan samtida inlands- och kustlokaler presenterats. Resultatet tyder på att Vindförbergs udde kan ha nyttjats året om, där både slakt, konsumtion och verktygstillverkning försiggått. Bävern är framträdande i materialet från Vindförberg och andra inlandslokaler, i samband med bäverns och sälens vattenlevande levnadssätt kan en tolkning av att bävern varit substitut för sälen göras. Likheter mellan gropkeramiska inlands- och kustlokaler kan ses i lokalernas placering i landskapet och kontakter med andra grupper. En tydlig skillnad är det osteologiska materialet där faunan skiljer sig åt. / The pitted ware culture is associated with coastal landscapes and an osteological material consisting of fish and seals. However, the culture also lived alongside inland lakes where fish and beavers were prominent instead. Vindförbergs beak (Vindförbergs udde) is one of several pitted ware culture sites in the inland located in Dalecarlia. What distinguishes Vindförberg from other surrounding premises is the beak’s high and steep location in the landscape. The purpose of this study is to interpret what kind of locale Vindförbergs beak was, why the beaver is prominent in inland pitted ware culture sites, and how inland sites differ from or resemble coastal sites. To answer these questions, an osteological analysis of stone age material from Vindförberg has been carried out, and a comparative method has been applied where the osteological material is compared with two coastal sites in Hälsingland, Gästrikland and one inland site in Dalecarlia. The discussion is focused on Vindförberg as a site and the beaver as a significant animal, and based on the paper’s research questions presents similarities and differences between inland and coastal sites. The results indicate that Vindförberg’s beak may have been used all year round, where both butchering and toolmaking were taking place. The beaver is prominent in the material from Vindförberg and other inland locations. Based on the aquatic lifestyle of the beaver and the seal, an interpretation can be made that the beaver was a substitute for the seal. Similarities between the inland pitted ware culture sites and the coastal sites can be seen in the location of the sites in the landscape and contacts with other groups. A clear difference is the osteological material where the fauna differs.

This essay is about the Mesolithic of Motala Canal and the depositions that have been found there, including a large number of animal bones. I would argue the most important discovery at this site was the human skulls, which will be the main topic of this essay. I will be working with ritual theory, and I will be working with past research on the Mesolithic, graves, and rituals. In this essay, I discuss whether this site has anything to do with rituals, and if so, are these mortuary rituals? The conclusion is that the site I have analysed was a ritualistic space. Some form of rituals that involved the craniums happened here for around 150 years during the late Mesolithic. What is not clear is if this was for mortuary purposes or other kind of purposes.

The Mesolithic period in Sweden lasted generally between 9500-4000 BC and is characterised by the dynamic landscape. People usually lived in smaller groups by the coast, sustained by the forests and the sea’s resources. The study is limited to central Sweden, specifically the province of Västmanland. Fourteen settlements are analysed through an archaeological analysis with an ecological perspective in order to answer how the Mesolithic people utilised the landscape resources and how this is reflected in said landscape. In conclusion, people used the landscape in order to accommodate their current needs long term or short term.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Umeå, 1985. / Includes bibliographical references (p. 280-285).

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Umeå, 1985. / Includes bibliographical references (p. 280-285).

This bachelor thesis is a compilation of previous master and bachelor theses written by osteology students at Högskolan på Gotland and Uppsala University Campus Gotland, with a focus on palaeopathology in individuals from the island of Gotland, from the Stone Age through the Middle Ages. The purpose of this thesis is to shed light on the history of disease on the island of Gotland on a bigger scale than previous theses have done. Most master and bachelor theses have typically focused on one site or settlement, set in a particular time period in their study, whereas I chose to combine all of the studies into one cohesive examination of all disease surveyable in the skeleton of these individuals. This, in order to see if there are differences to be found in the various time periods, or even differences among the population within a specific time period. And there are some differences to be seen, indeed; most notably perhaps between the Iron Age and the Middle Ages, where a difference in the dental health can clearly be seen. When comparing the other time periods however, caution must be advised; the skeletal material is lacking in most eras other than the Iron Age and the Middle Ages.

This essay has analyzed and compared measurements of at least 41 dogs from seven different locations on Gotland ranging periods from Stone Age to Iron Age. This essay’s focus was on studying what kind of different types of dogs there are in the different time periods on Gotland, but also what their usage may have been. Type is not to be confused with breed as it is a modern concept and would give a faulty image, type indicate usage such as primed for i.e. hunting. The thesis also explores if the result differs from the mainland or preference of dogs compared to the island. Earlier studies have stated that during the Stone- and Bronze Age there are spitz type dogs, which usually varies between 30-60 cm. While during the Iron age more variety of different type of dogs were found such a greyhound type. Even larger dogs appear in the material with a height of 60-70 cm.   The Gotlandic dogs that were examined came from the locations Simunde, Lilla Vikers, Stora Källstäde, Hemmor, Gullrum, Ire, Vallhagar and Broa in Halla. Their sizes differed between 25-73 cm in height. The types of dogs that have been read out in the material are spitz, terrier, molosser types. The spitz and the terrier types indicate a usage as a farm dog raging to hunting, herding, guarding and as a companion. The molosser type and the other long-legged dogs in Broa in Halla show more specified hunting, high status and even hunting with horse. Nothing shows a different preference of type or size between the mainland and Gotland with the exception that the Gotlandic Stone age dogs were a little on the larger side than normal. The dogs were important in Gotland society and lived a good life with man as well as having the same diet which was proven by carbon-13 value analyzes from Ajvide. The dogs showed very few injuries and those that did showed instead that they had been taken care of in form of food and shelter so that those injuries fully have healed properly. Which shows that man has taken care of the dogs and wanted them well in health, that the dog is indeed important to humans and is our best friend.