Police have been the subject of increased scrutiny over the past several years, and there exists a contention that this increased scrutiny impacted officer behavior, resulting in diminished proactive policing as officers may be performing their duties less vigorously. The study examines the effect that changes in scrutiny, as measured in terms of public interest and local news coverage, had upon police officer vigor, as measured by monthly counts of pedestrian and vehicle stops. This research is unique in that it examines the effects of scrutiny emanating from local incidents separately from that related to high profile incidents that received considerable nationwide interest; the extant research is currently limited to the latter. A series of fixed-effects negative binomial regression models examine the impact of scrutiny upon vigor over time throughout all neighborhoods in the city of Philadelphia. The study finds that local and national scrutiny do not have the same impact upon officer vigor, as scrutiny emanating from national incidents generally results in increases in officer vigor, while scrutiny emanating from local incidents results in an increase in ped stops in the first month following the scrutiny, and then a subsequent decrease in both forms of vigor in the second month. This study of police officer decision-making across space and time has both theoretical and practical implications. / Criminal Justice

There has been a history of a strained relationship between the public and the police institution for decades; most recently as a result of documented high levels of arrest rates among marginalized communities. Stop and frisk practices have been active in the United States since the 1950s and have been studied academically in the United States since the 1990s. However, research concerning Canadian data is limited. This project, using Bourdieusian concepts (field, habitus, capital, and doxa) with other resistance to change/police culture research, addresses the gaps in literature surrounding the practice of ‘carding’ in Canada by determining the forms of strategies and capital used by parties to defend and contest the police practice in the city of Toronto. Using a form of Document Analysis, this project created inductive categories from reports and recommendations submitted by the Toronto Police, several activist groups, and the province of Ontario between the years of 2012-2015. Findings from this paper were similar to previous literature; however, we saw an emotional argument surrounding the use of risk emerge through those justifying the police practice of ‘carding’. This emotional argument relied on a platform of fear and risk discourse, arguing that having limited faith in police not only goes against previously accepted practices, but places our communities in greater potential danger. Furthermore, our findings showed that narratives presented by those contesting the practice of ‘carding’ saw legal and factual arguments emerge which were not seen in previous literature. These legal and factual arguments focused on Constitutionality and statistics to contest the practice of ‘carding’, rather than rely on emotional arguments as seen in previous literature. This project allowed for a snapshot of the case in Toronto to help understand the issue in a Canadian context. Many themes developed were similar to previous literature; however, we saw a new emotional argument surrounding a risk discourse and those contesting ’carding’ have accessed the legal ‘field’ to express concerns. Directions for future research are presented at the end of this study.

The increasingly widespread use of surveillance as a cornerstone of crime control presents novel challenges to questions about personal autonomy, stigmatization, and the shape of social processes. In New York City, the end of stop-and-frisk policing meant the rise of “omnipresence,” built on a progression of the surveillance infrastructure. For residents of NYCHA public housing developments in New York City, the installation of highly visible surveillance structures provokes questions about the role of surveillance in increasing contact with the criminal justice system, as well about how use of these structures redefines spaces against a background of gentrification, a globalizing real estate market, and unbuffered income stratification. This project uses ethnographic methods, including interviews and participant observation to explore the phenomenology of social processes undertaken by individuals in relation to surveillance structures and to interrogate the use of surveillance in public housing. Engaging with the work of Bourdieu, Lefebvre, Wacquant, Goffman, and Sassen, the dissertation explores social ordering, stigmatization, norm durability, and place-making among NYCHA residents. The experiences of residents of neighborhoods that are on both sides of the city-wide demographic shifts associated with gentrification are further contrasted, contextualizing their interactions at the macro and micro levels. At the policy level, NYCHA housing becomes a focus of crime control measures as if containing public housing will address the root causes of crime. On the ground, however, cameras do not work to prevent crime, even when they are in good repair. Lights may make some individuals feel safer walking through courtyards late at night, but those same individuals fear that danger is just beyond the reach of the lights in the stairwells or playgrounds. If the cameras and lights fail to allay the fears of those in public housing, if their experiences with the system of surveillance have proven unsuccessful in preventing crime, giving the feeling of safety, or helping to solve crime, what is their purpose? This study posits that these structures are a spectacle. They are structures heavily laden with symbolism that reassure non-residents and residents alike of the neutralization of NYCHA residents. This symbolic dynamic ultimately stigmatizes NYCHA residents and pushes them further towards the systemic edge. Among the theoretical implications of the dissertation’s conclusions are an enhanced understanding of the connections between the persistence of social inequality, the “terra non grata” of certain urban spaces, and the dismantling of the social welfare state. The practical implications of this work are significant and add to discourses around the function of technology in the creation of new types of barriers.

This study created the new Collateral Consequences Survey on Marijuana-Related Stop, Question, and Frisk Experiences tool. The tool was administered to a sample (N = 73) 65.8% (N = 48) male, 31.5% (N = 23) female, 68.5% (N = 50) Black, 31.5% (N = 23) Latinx, with 90.4% (N = 66) born in the United States—with a mean age of 30.04 years (min =18, max = 55, SD = 9.42). Some 46.6% (N = 34) completed a Bachelor’s degree or higher, while 63% (N = 46) were employed—with a mean annual household income of $40,000 to $49,000 (mean = category 4.23, min = 1, max = 11, SD = 1.899). Participants suffered multiple long-lasting damages as collateral consequences from Stop, Question, and Frisk. Pearson Correlations showed the higher the global collateral consequences scores, then lower Age (r = -.572, p = .000); darker Skin Color (r = .281, p = .016); lower Income (r = -.269, p = 023); lower Life Satisfaction (r = -.469, p = .000); more Negative Impact on Physical Health (r = -.264, p = .024); more Negative Impact on Mental Health (r = -.413, p = .000); lower BMI (Body Mass Index) (r = -.439, p = .000); greater frequency of various types of marijuana-related police contact (r = .580, p = .000); and greater extent of invasive experiences with police (r = .117, p = .000). While controlling for social desirability, the significant predictors of the study outcome variable of the Global Collateral Consequences Score (GCCS-8) were as not born in the US (β = -.607, SEB = .294, p = .044); lower life satisfaction (β = -.141, SEB = .044, p = .002); lower Body Mass Index (β = -.042, SEB = .010, p = .000); more positive attitudes on marijuana equity and reparations (β = .347, SEB = .099, p = .001); greater frequency of various types of marijuana-related police contact (β = -.232, SEB = .099, p = .024); and greater extent of invasive experiences with police (β = .324, SEB = .084, p = .000). This model accounted for 62.4% of the variance (R2 = 0.669 and Adj R2 = 0.624). Qualitative data expanded on the quantitative data findings. Implications and recommendations covered how the new tool created for this study may be used in future research and for screening purposes to identify those needing interventions from police stress and trauma.

Stop-and-frisk has become a significant issue of debate in recent years with both the constitutionality and effectiveness of the practice coming into question. The New York City Police Department (NYPD) has especially come under scrutiny for their stop-and-frisk program in recent years with researchers finding that minorities and the disadvantaged were being targeted by the NYPD during stop-and-frisk encounters. The majority of the research had focused on New York City, and thus there was little data on the use of stop-and-frisk in other jurisdictions. Moreover, there were few studies that examined officer characteristics, such as college education, agency size, etc., on stop-and-frisk and their effect on officers’ understanding of Terry v. Ohio and the legal standard of reasonable suspicion. It was important to understand what extralegal factors police officers were considering prior to stopping someone to ensure that they were not profiling suspects. Moreover, it was necessary to determine if the officers were following the law regarding what factors constitute reasonable suspicion. A qualitative research design in the form of a case study was utilized to explore how college-educated police officers in small to mid-sized agencies in suburban Western Pennsylvania describe the factors that lead to their decision to stop-and-frisk an individual. The participating police officers possessed either a bachelor’s degree or master’s degree with varying levels of rank and experience. The officers were interviewed in person and questioned regarding their stop-and-frisk practices as well as their understanding of the legal requirements necessary prior to conducting such encounters. A general inductive approach was utilized to analyze the data. NVivo software was utilized to identify categories and themes within the participant interviews consistent with a general inductive approach. A number of categories were identified in reference to how the officers described the legal and extralegal factors that led to their decision to stop-and-frisk when the interview responses were analyzed.

Due to the great change of Taiwan social environment, values are seriously distorted. Many adolescents would gather together at holiday nights for dangerous driving on road (racing) which not only causes gridlock on road and interferes traffic seriously, what¡¦s worse is these youths even attack the public, police officers on duty and related competed agency with force. This behavior not only violates legal regulations but damages social security severely, threatens citizens¡¦ life, body and property safety. Since the role of police officer serves as the function of social security maintenance, to clamp down and hold back dangerous driving is one important segment for the exercise of police powers. The exercise method of police powers in Taiwan has been reformed greatly due to the change of political and economical situation. During Martial Law Period, to meet the demand, this nation conferred authority on police officers to great extension. The nature of duty enforcement also belonged to regulation, clampdown, and penalty with compulsive implementation upon enforcement. However, the delegation scope pursuant to law is unspecific and the requirement of enforcement is general, human right violation controversy is often occurred. Till Interpretation of Shih-Zih No. 535 made by Grand Justice of Judicial Yuan, police authority then faces the importance of administrative procedure and is able to step forward to a country of nomocracy. With the promotion from all circles, ¡§Act of Exercise of the Police Powers¡¨ of Taiwan was effected on Dec. 1, 2003, herein not only regulates specifically the definition, function of power limits and implementation method of police officer, it also stipulates the practical measures of civil rights adopted for police powers exercise in proclamation to demand police officers to be in compliance with principle of proportionality while exercising authority. It also bestows the legal basis on police powers exercising that can look after both the insurance of human right and the maintenance of police safety which really possesses groundbreaking meaning of a time. Only that whether the formulation of the said act in practical really indicates the dangerous driving prevention legal system of police officers has already achieved its perfection worth the further research and exploration by this study. Administrative law is deep and profound as well as extensive and infinite and hasn¡¦t formed a complete administration law till now. Only that with observation from the method and principle of administrative act, it can be divided into five main structures of Basic Principle, Organization Framework, Limit of Administrative Rights, Administrative Relief, and Administrative Surveillance. Any administrative legal system pursuits to achieve its perfection, it then shall be analyzed by the five main structures of administrative act. Therefore, the five main structures of administrative act serve as the center in this study to examine the dangerous driving prevention legal system of police officer and review the practice method of police authority and compare to current relative decrees and regulations, expecting police officers can work out the problems concerning to the requirements of power exercise and procedure and to be advantageous to the reinforcement of dangerous driving prevention. Under this pattern of thought, this study tries to examine all systems upon dangerous driving prevention and clampdown of Taiwan police officers from the angle of administrative act with the said five main structures of administrative act basic principles as the research method in this study. The main frameworks of this study are divided into seven chapters respectively: Chapter 1 Introduction To bring forth the dubious interpretation of current dangerous driving prevention reinforcement by police authority firstly to explain the research motive, purpose, research scope, limits, research method, framework, the determination of related terms, and so on. Chapter 2 The Basic Principle of Dangerous Driving Prevention Legal System of Police Officer. To interpret the concept and definition of dangerous driving firstly and then bring forth the cruxes in reality and data analysis against the four aspects of society with actual phenomena, economy with most appropriate adjustment, politics of interrogation and legal system of decrees and regulations to make us understand the establishment background of dangerous driving prevention legal system of police officers. And further to compliment with Japan dangerous driving prevention system, the analysis of international aspect to adopt the successful experiences of dangerous driving prevention in foreign countries; and then explore the nomocracy of dangerous driving legal system of police officers from the angle of three principles of administrative act and seven principles of procedure justices to discuss the related legal basis and regulations concerning police power exercise; and finally explore the participation of relative parties of dangerous driving prevention legal system of police officers, expecting to assist police officers in the reinforcement of dangerous driving prevention with the participation of the public to make the dangerous driving prevention legal system more complete. Chapter 3 The Organization Framework of Dangerous Driving Prevention Legal System of Police Officer To explore current central and local police administrative organization to deep understand the problems of organization framework, personnel system and fund budget of police authority, expecting to establish complete organization framework for the advantages of practical operation of dangerous driving prevention of police authority. Chapter 4 The Limit of Administrative Rights and Implementation of Dangerous Driving Prevention Legal System of Police Officer Traditional clampdown with penalty and other administrative actions exempted from high power type are included. The types and meaning is to be explored against the regulation items of seven ¡§Administrative Procedure Law,¡¨ including Administrative Investigation, Administrative Plan, Administrative Legislation, Administrative Penalty, Administrative Contract, Administrative Instruction, and the insurance of Administrative Duty Reinforcement that is helpful for the clear-up of the requirements and procedures of police power exercise. Chapter 5 The Relief and Solutions to Problems Arising from Dangerous Driving Prevention Legal System of Police Officer According to the different categories of agency receiving relief procedures, they can be divided into the administrative relief within and outside administrative system. Start from the relief system of compliant, declaration against different opinions and petition; and then discuss the administrative suit system outside administrative system; and then continue to compliment other relief ways of petition and pleading; and finally to explore national compensation, constitute interpretation and public vote one by one to cover all surveillance rights of people in details. Chapter 6 The Administrative Surveillance of Dangerous Driving Prevention Legal System of Police Officer Due to quality and quantity changes of modern country administration, the necessity of administrative control increases day by day. Complete administrative surveillance legal system consists in exploring the supervising system of inspect, supervise, political affairs and sales within police authority and outer supervising system of power, the public, opinion and social groups. With the supervising function of administrative surveillance to expect the work of dangerous driving prevention of police officer would meet the demand of nation, society and people in the respects of legal system and effects. Chapter 7 Conclusion and Suggestion To bring forth problems discovered after research and propose suggestions for improvements against dangerous driving prevention for the reference of police officers upon the reinforcement.

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Although hot spots policing has become one of the most promising policing strategies, the empirical evidence on the effectiveness of hot spots policing does not suggest what police should be doing in crime hot spots. To date, police enforcement actions – pedestrian investigations, traffic enforcement, and arrests – still dominate American policing. Yet empirical studies of these actions have not: focused on micro-geographic areas, employed multiple measures of police enforcement actions, or empirically compared the effectiveness of different enforcement actions. Given these gaps in the literature, a mixed-methods study sought to answer four research questions. (1) Do four police enforcement actions focused on offenders or potential offenders reduce violent crime in hot spots? The four police enforcement actions examined were pedestrian investigations, traffic enforcement events, quality of life arrests, and violent crime arrests. (2) Are any one of these four police enforcement actions more effective than the others? (3) When police commanders allocate resources to crime hot spots, what do police commanders think they are doing? (4) What are police commanders’ rationales for what they do in crime hot spots? The first two questions were answered using official data from the Philadelphia Police Department. A purposive sample of 169 high crime street blocks and intersections was drawn and longitudinal data analyses examined the effects of police enforcement actions on monthly violent crime counts from 2009 to 2013 (n = 10,140). Wald Tests were used to test for the differential effectiveness of the four enforcement actions. Qualitative methods answered the remaining two research questions. Field observations of crime strategy meetings (May, 2014 to August, 2014) and interviews with police commanders (November, 2014 to February, 2015) were conducted. The quantitative results found total enforcement and pedestrian stop levels in the previous or same month linked to higher expected monthly violent crime counts. The positive effect of pedestrian stops was significantly larger than the effects of traffic enforcement or quality of life arrests. Despite the positive relationship between police enforcement and violent crime, the qualitative results provided insight into what police commanders thought they were doing in crime hot spots. Three themes emerged from the qualitative data: (1) “locking down” crime hot spots, (2) disrupting high risk offenders, and (3) educating potential victims. Police commanders rationalized these beliefs with four explanations of their effectiveness: (1) making offenders “think twice”, (2) denying potential offenders and victims certain places in order to reduce crime opportunities, (3) getting high risk offenders “off the street”, and (4) target hardening. Drawing on theorizing for how police enforcement actions might actually link to higher levels of crime (Grabosky, 1996) and methodological concerns raised by Taylor (2015), five possible explanations for the observed positive relationships among police enforcement actions and violent crime are provided: (1) an anticipatory effect, (2) over-deterrence, (3) escalation, (4) unintended enticement and self-fulfilling prophecies, and (5) temporal scaling. The anticipatory effect explanation centers on the police correctly anticipating outbreaks of violent crime but violent crime still not being reduced due to (1) dosage, (2) the overuse of enforcement, (3) police legitimacy, (4) temporal displacement or two components the study’s design (5) imprecise measurement and (6) lack of a proper counterfactual. Additionally, police enforcement actions may inadvertently reduce guardianship though over-deterrence, escalate competition among rival offenders, or inform potential offenders of crimes they could or “should” be committing. Finally, the study’s temporal scale (i.e., months) may not be fine enough to capture the actual cycling of how increased enforcement actions produce lower violent crime levels. The qualitative data are drawn upon to possibly support these explanations. Additionally, the pros and cons of police commanders’ perspectives on the use and effectiveness of enforcement actions are discussed in context of the criminological theory and crime control literatures. Finally, the results are discussed in terms of their implications for crime control theory and policy. / Criminal Justice

This thesis analyzes the legal history of the Supreme Court’s Fourth Amendment case law as it relates to the police practice of Stop and Frisk which shifted drastically in 1968 with the creation of the “Terry Stop”. From that decision, it analyzes the broader role that both the Judiciary and Law Enforcement, as fundamental American institutions, played in the creation of the Carceral State. This research draws on archival Supreme Court records to demonstrate that the decision to reinterpret the Fourth Amendment’s prohibition on warrantless searches and seizures was made in full view of the politicization and racialization of crime. Further, it shows that the Supreme Court both faced and succumbed to the immense pressure that Law Enforcement, lobbyists, and the United States Department of Justice placed on it. In response, the Court created a semantic carveout of the Fourth Amendment that permitted the practice of racially motivated Stop and Frisk, and the confiscation of contraband found during such frisks as evidence of a crime. In doing so, the Court demonstrated its allegiance to Law Enforcement—in the face of significant evidence to the contrary—by continually dismissing arguments that police practices were motivated by negative stereotypes. In legalizing the Stop and Frisk in 1968, the Court empowered Law Enforcement to practices to gradually shift away from the racially motivated police harassment from the Vagrancy Regime of the Jim Crow era to a constitutionally permissible Stop and Frisk regime. This thesis situates the advent of that change in Police Power which brought about this new regime as a primordial cornerstone in the creation of the Carceral State which was characterized by police as the agents who gathered Black bodies from American streets into the justice system.

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