Oyster shells are normally applied in wastewater treatment in the form of a powder; but the possibility of whole oyster shells removing metal ions in stormwater has not been investigated. The objectives of this research are to assess the application of whole oyster shells for removing metals in low concentration solutions and to explore the influence of the following factors: surface area of shells, initial concentration and exposure time, on removal efficiency. Experimental results demonstrated very good removal efficiency by oyster shells for removing copper, followed by cadmium and zinc; but was not effective in hexavalent chromium removal. Up to 70% removal can be reached in just one hour for copper with initial concentrations of 0.2ppm with 550cm2 of surface area (SA) of shells in a beaker experiment treating two-liter solutions (with an accompanying pH increase from 5 to 6.42). A removal efficiency (RE) of 57.7% and 33.3% was found for cadmium and zinc, respectively, with one day contact using shells of 300cm2 SA treating one liter of the lowest concentration solution; while only 14.3% was achieved for chromium under the same conditions. Mid-scale experiments with continuous inflow based on the 6-hour Saanich Design Storm demonstrated an 85.5% and an 83.9% RE of cadmium and copper in one day’s worth of contact time. There was no removal but in fact an increase in chromium and zinc was found for the mid-scale experiment. There was a positive relationship between initial concentration (IC) and removal efficiency for copper and zinc, but a negative relationship for chromium, while no relationship was found for cadmium. Up to 80% of copper can be removed at IC of 2.4ppm compared to 60% with IC of 0.65ppm with same amount of shells (by surface area). RE of 70%, 75% and 83% was observed for IC of 0.3ppm, 0.58ppm and 1.07ppm for zinc, respectively, with 154 cm2 SA. When IC of chromium is reduced from 1 ppm to 0.2ppm, RE tends to drop from 60% to 26%. There was also a positive relationship between SA and RE, and ET and RE. However, after a certain exposure time, increase in RE was negligible and sometimes, desorption would occur. Additionally, when the difference in surface area is small, the influence of this factor on RE was also small. When treating certain ranges of solution concentration, the effect of surface area on RE is difficult to distinguish. Moreover, the role of HRT in stormwater systems was not clearly found. / Graduate

The world is urbanizing at an unprecedented rate, and cities are dominantly and increasingly becoming hubs for agglomerations of human population and economic activities, as well as major sources of environmental problems. Accordingly, humanity′s pursuit of global sustainability is becoming increasingly reliant on urban sustainability. Unfortunately, the traditional approaches of urbanization and urban stormwater management are inappropriate from the sustainability standpoint. By removing vegetation and topsoil and creating impervious structures, urbanization destroys natural biodiversity and hydrological processes. As a result, urban societies are disconnected from nature and deprived of ecosystem services including flood control, fresh air, clean water, and natural beauty. Due to disrupted hydrology, an urban landscape transforms most rainwater into stormwater runoff which is conveyed off the site through a system of curb-gutter-pipe, called gray infrastructure. While gray infrastructure efficiently mitigates the problem of flash floods in urban areas, it results in multiple other adverse environmental consequences such as loss of freshwater from urban landscapes, transfer of pollutants to receiving waters, and an increased potential of downstream flooding. Green infrastructure (GI) is regarded as a sound alternative that manages stormwater by revitalizing the natural processes of soil, water, and vegetation, and restoring ecosystem structures and functions. Thus, the approach re–establishes the lost socio–ecological connectivity and regenerates ecosystem services. However, despite being inevitably important for urban sustainability, and despite being the object of unrelenting expert advocacy for more than two decades, the approach is yet to become a mainstream practice. To widely implement GI, cities need to address two critical challenges. First, urban stormwater managers and decision makers should be ensured that the approach can adequately and reliably manage stormwater. In the time when flooding problems are rising due to climate change, this concern has become more prominent. Second, if there exist any other barriers, they should be replaced with strategies that help expedite the use of GI. This multidisciplinary research dealt with these two challenges. The study consisted of two major parts. In the first part, a computer model was developed for a combined sewer system of St. Louis, a city in the US state of Missouri, using U.S. EPA SWMM. Simulations for historical (1971-2000) and future (2041-2070) 50-yr 3-hr rainfall scenarios were then run on the model with and without GI. The simulation results showed a significant impact of increased precipitation on the system, which was considerably reduced after adding select GI measures to the modeled system. The following 4 types of GI were used: bio–retention cell, permeable pavement, green roof, and rain barrel. In the second part, a survey of relevant policies and governance mechanisms of eleven U.S. cities was conducted to identify potential barriers to GI and determine strategies to address them. The study also included the assessment of relevant city, state, and federal policies and governance structures. A total of 29 barriers were identified, which were grouped into 5 categories. Most of the identified barriers stem from cognitive barriers and socio–institutional arrangements. A total of 33 policies, also grouped into 5 groups, were determined to address the barriers. The investigation on governance revealed that current governance is highly technocratic and centralized, and hence has less opportunity for public involvement. Therefore, it is inherently inappropriate for GI, which requires extensive public involvement. This dissertation proposes a two–tier governance model suitable for implementing GI.

The ability to anticipate and evaluate the combined impacts of urbanization and climate change on streamflow regimes is critical to developing proactive strategies that protect aquatic ecosystems. I developed an interdisciplinary modeling framework to compare and contrast the effectiveness of integrated stormwater management, or its absence, with two regional growth patterns for maintaining streamflow regimes in the context of climate change. In three adjacent urbanizing watersheds in Oregon's Willamette Valley, I conducted a three-step sequence to: 1) simulate land use change under four future development scenarios with the agent-based model Envision; 2) model resultant hydrological change under the recent past and two future climate regimes using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool; and 3) assess scenario impacts on streamflow regimes using 10 ecologically significant flow metrics. I evaluated each scenario in each basin using a flow metric typology based on the magnitude of change in each metric and the degree to which such changes could be mitigated, i.e., insensitive, sensitive and manageable, and sensitive and resistant. My results demonstrated distinct signatures of urbanization and climate change on flow regimes. Urbanization and climate change in isolation led to significant flow alterations in all three basins. Urbanization consistently led to increases in flow regime flashiness and severity of extreme flow events, whereas climate change primarily caused a drying trend. Climate change tended to exacerbate the impacts of urbanization but also mitigated urban impacts on several metrics. The combined impacts of urbanization and climate change caused substantial changes to metric sensitivities, which further differed by basin and climate regime, highlighting the uncertainties of streamflow regime responses to development and the value of spatially explicit modeling that can reveal complex interactions between natural and human systems. Scenario comparisons demonstrated the importance of integrated stormwater management and, secondarily, compact regional growth. My findings reveal the need for regional flow-ecology research that substantiates the ecological significance of each flow metric, develops specific targets for manageable ones, and explores potential remedies for resistant ones. The interdisciplinary modeling framework shows promise as a transferable tool for local watershed management. This dissertation includes previously unpublished co-authored material.

Today stormwater is a growing problem and it is a hot topic for discussions. Due to the urbanization with growing cities and hard surfaces of asphalt and concrete, rainwater flows off the streets and takes contaminants into stormwater wells. From stormwater pipes, water is led to lakes and the sea. The Water Authorities had as a goal that the stormwater would be of satisfactorily ecological and chemical status until year 2015, or in exceptional case a little later. It is then even more important to purify the water, which can be done through vegetation and infiltration in soils and in openwater systems. Openwater systems have better capacity to receive larger flows of water than stormwater pipes. Increased rainwater flows will happen more often with the warmer climate and the increased rainfall that comes with climate change. It is a common problem that urban stormwater pipelines are overloaded and stormwater wells and streets overflow. This report evaluates an industrial area that is planned to be converted into residential areas, for which open-stormwater systems that can be used. Today the stormwater flows from the soil sealed areas from the industrial area down to the recipient without cleaning. An efficient alternative is to use stormwater systems that have vegetation and infiltration for stormwater, so the stormwater can be purified and retarded before it reaches the stormwater pipeline. / Idag är dagvatten ett växande problem och är ett hett ämne att diskutera. På grund av urbaniseringen med växande städer och hårdgjorda ytor, rinner regnvatten av från gator och tar med sig eventuella föroreningar ner i dagvattenbrunnar. Från dagvattenledningarna leds vattnet ut till sjöar och hav. Vattenmyndigheten hade som mål att ytvattnet skulle vara av god ekologisk och kemisk status till år 2015, med undantagsfall något senare. Därav ännu viktigare att rena dagvattnet, vilket kan göras genom vegetation och infiltrering i mark och i öppna dagvattensystem. Öppna dagvattensystem har bättre kapacitet att ta emot större flöden av vatten än ordinära dagvattenledningar. Ökade dagvattenflöden kommer att ske oftare med det varmare klimatet och den ökade nederbörd som kommer med klimatförändringarna. Det är ett vanligt problem att dagvattenledningarna i städer blir överbelastade och dagvattenbrunnar och gator svämmar över. I denna rapport utvärderas ett industriområde som planeras att byggas om till bostadsområde, för vilka öppna dagvattensystem som kan användas. I dagsläget rinner dagvattnet från de hårdgjorda ytorna från industriområdet ner till recipienten utan rening. Ett bra alternativ är att använda dagvattensystem som har vegetation och infiltrering för dagvatten, då kan dagvattnet både renas och fördröjas innan det når dagvattenledningen.

abstract: Bioretention basins are a common stormwater best management practice (BMP) used to mitigate the hydrologic consequences of urbanization. Dry wells, also known as vadose-zone wells, have been used extensively in bioretention basins in Maricopa County, Arizona to decrease total drain time and recharge groundwater. A mixed integer nonlinear programming (MINLP) model has been developed for the minimum cost design of bioretention basins with dry wells. The model developed simultaneously determines the peak stormwater inflow from watershed parameters and optimizes the size of the basin and the number and depth of dry wells based on infiltration, evapotranspiration (ET), and dry well characteristics and cost inputs. The modified rational method is used for the design storm hydrograph, and the Green-Ampt method is used for infiltration. ET rates are calculated using the Penman Monteith method or the Hargreaves-Samani method. The dry well flow rate is determined using an equation developed for reverse auger-hole flow. The first phase of development of the model is to expand a nonlinear programming (NLP) for the optimal design of infiltration basins for use with bioretention basins. Next a single dry well is added to the NLP bioretention basin optimization model. Finally the number of dry wells in the basin is modeled as an integer variable creating a MINLP problem. The NLP models and MINLP model are solved using the General Algebraic Modeling System (GAMS). Two example applications demonstrate the efficiency and practicality of the model. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis Civil Engineering 2016

Master of Landscape Architecture / Department of Landscape Architecture/Regional and Community Planning / Richard H. Forsyth / Low Impact Development (LID) is an emerging ecological method for planning and designing stormwater management. The main goal of LID is that post development hydrology mimic predevelopment hydrology or that of the natural land pattern. The difference between LID and conventional end of pipe engineering is that LID is designed for on-site infiltration. LID was developed in Maryland and has since been adapted to other ecoregions. The introduction and background offer a review of the importance of ecological stormwater management and the basic principles and techniques of LID. Ecological stormwater management involves understanding and applying ecoregion factors such as: climate, physiography/ landform, geology, soils, and plant associations. This thesis begins with a brief overview of the ecoregional factors associated with the Topeka, Kansas (KS) area. Two case studies of LID type stormwater structures are investigated. The case studies, Jackson Street and Hillcrest, are projects of the City of Topeka Water Pollution Control Division (Topeka, KS). The primary topics investigated include: background, political approval process, condition of site before implementation, general project design, stormwater design, soil, plants, LID principles and techniques used, lessons learned, and a critique of each project. Investigation methods include: personal communication with key individuals involved, and a review of site visits, drawings, specifications, and other projects documents.

Submitted by Luciana Ferreira (lucgeral@gmail.com) on 2015-05-07T14:06:12Z No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação - Luciana Inácio Pauletti - 2012.pdf: 2287630 bytes, checksum: 392dd39420f8918a2239eaf29eea5ee0 (MD5) license_rdf: 23148 bytes, checksum: 9da0b6dfac957114c6a7714714b86306 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Luciana Ferreira (lucgeral@gmail.com) on 2015-05-07T14:08:33Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação - Luciana Inácio Pauletti - 2012.pdf: 2287630 bytes, checksum: 392dd39420f8918a2239eaf29eea5ee0 (MD5) license_rdf: 23148 bytes, checksum: 9da0b6dfac957114c6a7714714b86306 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2015-05-07T14:08:33Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação - Luciana Inácio Pauletti - 2012.pdf: 2287630 bytes, checksum: 392dd39420f8918a2239eaf29eea5ee0 (MD5) license_rdf: 23148 bytes, checksum: 9da0b6dfac957114c6a7714714b86306 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012-09-21 / The stormwater runoff in urban areas is an important source of non-point pollutants. This study aimed to quantify the build-up and wash-off of pollutants, particularly metals, water runoff from a paved surface urban Goiânia. Studies to estimate the processes of build-up and wash-off are still incipient in Brazil. We evaluated twelve plots paved with size of 3m2, located in a public parking lot, where they were analyzed on build-up and wash-off in June and July 2012. To wash-off was used a rainfall simulator in three intensities, 69 mm/h, 109 mm/h and 180 mm/h. Quantitation of accumulation in sampled surfaces determined load per m2 to obtain the coefficient build-up as well as for the analysis of the influence of background dried days before sampling campaigns. The build-up was adjusted at four possible equations for use in models water quality: (1) Linear, (2) Power (3) Exponential, and (4) Michaelis-Menton by obtaining the best fit. The water quality parameters analyzed were used for calculation of Average Concentration Event (CME), building polutogramas, coefficient of wash-off and correlation analyzes. The accumulation rate obtained was, on average, 8.53 g/m2dia, and more days dry, the greater the accumulation of pollutants. Levels of metals were found in all analyzed plots for all simulated events in different periods. There sharp and direct correlation between variables, particularly suspended solids and metals. The intensity of rain on the wash-off was clear, since the simulated rain intensity shifted with greater dirtier. Parameters were obtained for modeling the quality of rainwater. / O presente trabalho teve como objetivo quantificar o acúmulo (build-up) e carreamento (wash-off) de poluentes, principalmente metais, na água do escoamento de uma superfície pavimentada urbana de Goiânia. Os estudos para estimativa dos processos de build-up e wash-off são ainda insipientes no Brasil. Foram avaliadas doze parcelas experimentais asfaltadas, com dimensão de 3m2, situadas em um estacionamento público, onde foram realizadas as determinações de build-up e wash-off nos meses de junho e julho de 2012. Para wash-off foi utilizado um simulador de chuvas em três intensidades, 69 mm/h, 109 mm/h e 180 mm/h. A quantificação do acúmulo nas superfícies amostradas determinou a carga por m2 para obtenção do coeficiente de build-up, bem como para a análise da influência dos dias secos antecedentes antes das campanhas amostrais. O build-up foi ajustado nas quatro equações: (1)Linear, (2)Potencial, (3)Exponencial, e (4)Michaelis-Menton, com a qual se obteve o melhor ajuste. As análises de qualidade de água de escoamento permitiram o cálculo da Concentração Média do Evento (CME), construção de polutogramas, determinação do coeficiente de wash-off e análises de correlação. A taxa de acúmulo obtida foi, em média, de 8,53g/m2dia, sendo que quanto mais dias secos antecedentes à coleta, maior o acúmulo de poluentes. Foram encontrados metais (cromo, cádmio, cobre, chumbo, níquel, zinco, manganês e ferro) em todas as parcelas experimentais para todos os eventos simulados nos diferentes períodos. Verificou-se correlação direta e acentuada entre as variáveis avaliadas, principalmente entre sólidos suspensos e metais. O efeito da intensidade de chuva sobre o wash-off ficou evidente, visto que as chuvas simuladas com maior intensidade deslocaram mais poluentes. Neste estudo foram obtidos parâmetros para a modelagem da qualidade das águas pluviais.

Sediments from four areas adjacent to marinas and a background site in the Intracoastal Waterway were assessed for macroinvertebrate composition and heavy metal contamination. Sediment core samples were collected in 2004 and 2005 for analyses of macroinvertebrate composition and sediment grain size. Additional sediment samples were collected in 2005 for chemical analyses of metals (Al, As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Pb, Hg, Ni and Zn). MANOVA and dendograms using Bray-Curtis similarity matrices grouped the sites into two clusters: the 3 sites closest to the New River formed one group, and the two end sites formed the other. The sites nearest the New River were dominated by polychaetes, half of which were pollutant-tolerant species (e.g., Capitella capitata). The macroinvertebrate communities of the two end sites were dominated by tanaids, gastropods and sipunculids with fewer annelids than the other 3 sites. The influence of the New River on the study sites appeared to outweigh the sources of metal pollution found in marinas. The 3 sites closest to the New River had higher metal concentrations than the two end sites. The background site, nearest the mouth of the New River, exceeded the Florida sediment quality guideline probable effect level for cadmium and copper while three of the four marina sites exceeded at most one probable effect level and one or more threshold effect levels for cadmium and copper. The furthest site from the New River, which was the closest site to Port Everglades, had the lowest metal concentrations. Additional studies are needed to determine the level of pollutant loading from the New River and its effects on nearby biological communities.

Les problèmes croissants posés par la gestion de l'eau en ville ont entraîné ces dernières décennies la structuration d'une expertise en hydrologie urbaine, dont l'objectif est de résoudre les problèmes d'inondations et les dommages environnementaux provoqués par le ruissellement urbain. Cette expertise s'est appuyée sur le développement de coopérations étroites entre des scientifiques et des praticiens des collectivités territoriales, qui ont donné naissance dans les années quatre-vingt-dix, sur les territoires du Grand Lyon, de Nantes Métropole et de la région parisienne, à des formes institutionnelles inédites : les observatoires d'hydrologie urbaine. Ce travail de recherche analyse la constitution de ces dispositifs de production de connaissances en réalisant une socio-histoire de ces collaborations depuis les années soixante-dix. Celle-ci montre comment la structuration des observatoires est déterminée par leur contexte d'origine et le poids de cet héritage sur leurs logiques de fonctionnement actuelles. La trajectoire de chaque observatoire traduit à la fois une histoire singulière et l'existence de « points de passages obligés » empruntés par les trois entités. L'enquête saisit les formes d'organisation particulières des observatoires, la façon dont ils construisent leur double légitimité (dans le champ académique et en s'appuyant sur une demande sociale), l'ambiguïté de leur rapport au politique et les stratégies déployées pour asseoir leur pérennité. Nous questionnons également les modes de production de la science lorsque cette dernière participe à la construction des problèmes et à leur représentation. Cette sociologie de l'expertise est un point de départ à l'analyse des processus d'innovation à l'œuvre dans la gestion des eaux pluviales. Nous mettons en lumière le modèle d'innovation précautionneux induit par cette configuration d'acteurs, qui assigne aux observatoires un rôle d'évaluation et de régulation des pratiques dans un contexte de changement de paradigme de la gestion des eaux urbaines. Une démarche comparative permet de singulariser ce modèle : l'enquête a été élargie à deux terrains témoins « sans observatoire », Rennes Métropole et la communauté d'agglomération du Douaisis, qui présentent un modèle d'innovation plus radical et donnent à voir d'autres conceptions du changement. À travers l'exemple de la communauté scientifique et technique de l'hydrologie urbaine, nous interrogeons ce que produisent ces nouveaux modes d'intervention scientifique et la manière dont ils réorganisent les rapports entre science, technique et politique. L'altérité apportée par les terrains témoins révèle aussi d'autres façons d'envisager « l'agir dans un monde incertain » et de faire face aux risques qui marquent cette politique environnementale en construction / The growing problems regarding urban water management have been accompanied in the past decades with the emergence of an expertise in urban hydrology, which aims at solving flooding problems and environmental damage caused by urban runoff. This expertise, which involves close cooperation between scientists and practitioners from local authorities, originated in the early nineties with the advent of observatories of urban hydrology in the metropolitan areas of Lyon and Nantes, as well as in the Paris region. This research analyzes the constitution of these organizations by conducting a socio- history of the collaborations since the 1970s. It emphasizes how the structuring of these observatories has evolved from their original contexts, and how the impact of these origins has shaped their current operating logistics. While each of these three observatories has a unique history, they share common features and have undergone similar obligatory main steps. The inquiry captures how the respective observatories have sought a double legitimacy (in the academic field as well as in meeting the demands of societal needs). It also shows the ambiguity of their relationship to politics and their strategies to assure their sustainability. We question too the way science is produced because in this instance, it is participating in dealing with problems while also representing them to the public. The sociology of expertise is a starting point for analyzing the innovation process regarding stormwater management. We bring to light a cautious model of innovation by which scientists assign to the observatories the primary roles of evaluation and regulatory practices in the context of paradigm shift of urban water management. A comparative approach permits characterizing this model. The research includes two additional sites that lack observatories: the Rennes metropolitan region and the Le Douaisis agglomerated community, which present a more radical approach to innovation that reveals other concepts of change. Through the example of the scientific and technical community of urban hydrology, we question what these new modes of scientific intervention produce, and the manner by which they re-shape the relationships between science, technology and policy. The alternate perspectives brought by the different cities also reveal other ways for envisioning "acting in an uncertain world" and for dealing with the inherent risks of this emerging environmental policy

Stormwater retention basins are an integral component of municipal stormwater management strategies in North America. The province of Ontario’s Ministry of the Environment and Climate Change obligates land developers to implement stormwater management in their land use and development plans to mitigate the effects of urbanization (Bradford and Gharabaghi, 2004). When stormwater retention ponds are improperly designed or maintained, these basins can fail at improving effluent water quality and may exasperate water quality issues. Intense H2S production events in stormwater infrastructure is a serious problem which is seldom encountered and documented in stormwater retention ponds. This study monitored two stormwater retention ponds situated in the Riverside South community, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada for a period of 15 consecutive months to thoroughly characterize intense hydrogen sulfide (H2S) production in a stormwater retention pond under ice covered conditions during winter operation and during periods of drought under non-ice covered conditions during the summer. Field experiments showed a strong relationship (p < 0.006, R > 0.58, n = 20+) between hypoxic conditions (dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration < 2 mg/L) and the intense production of H2S gas. Ice-capping of the stormwater ponds during winter severely hindered reaeration of the pond and led to significant production of total sulfides in the Riverside South Pond #2 (RSP2), which subsequently resulted in the accumulation of total sulfides in the water column (20.7 mg/L) during winter in this pond. There was a perceived lag phase between the drop in DO and the increase in total sulfides near the surface, which was potentially indicative of slow movement of total sulfides from the benthic sediment into the water column. These high-sulfide conditions persisted in RSP2 from early January 2015 until the spring thaw, in mid-April, 2015. Riverside South Pond #1 (RSP1), the reference pond studied in this work, showed significantly less production of total sulfides across a significantly shorter period of time. Analysis of the microbial communities showed that there was little change in the dominant bacterial populations present in the benthic sediment of the pond demonstrating significant total sulfide production (RSP2) and the pond that did not demonstrate significant total sulfide production (RSP1). Additionally, it was found that locations with the most accumulated sediment had the highest propensity for the production of H2S gas. Furthermore, there was no perceivable community shift in the two ponds throughout the seasons, indicating that the sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) in stormwater benthic sediment are ubiquitous, exist in an acclimatized microbial population and are robust. Study of the microbial abundances revealed that SRB represented approximately 5.01 ± 0.79 % of the microbes present in the benthic sediment of RSP2. Likewise, in the stormwater pond which did not experience intense H2S gas production, RSP1, 6.22 ± 2.11 % of microbes were of the SRB type, demonstrating that H2S gas production does not correspond to higher concentrations of SRB or the proliferation of dominant species, but rather is a symptom of increased bacterial activity due to favourable environmental conditions. In addition, this work also covers the kinetics of sediment oxygen demand (SOD), ammonification and sulfate-reduction, and attempts to understand the processes leading to H2S gas production events. In doing so, it was observed that kinetics obtained full-scale field studies were greater than in laboratory kinetic experiments. Laboratory experiments at 4°C identified total SOD, ammonification and sulfate-reduction kinetics to be 0.023 g/m2/day, 0.027 g N/m2/day and 0.004 g S/m2/day, respectively. Meanwhile, kinetics calculated from the field study of stormwater retention ponds for total SOD, ammonification and sulfate-reduction were of 0.491 g/m2/day, 0.120 g N/m2/day and 0.147 g S/m2/day, respectively. It is expected that this difference is due to the depth of active sediment influencing the total rates of production/consumption, making area-normalized daily rates of production/consumption (g/m2/day) unsuitable for the comparison of field and laboratory studies, without some scaling factor. This study also measured supplementary kinetic parameters such as the Arrhenius coefficients and the half-saturation coefficient, to add to existing knowledge of sulfate-reduction.