Long-term hydrologic and nonpoint source (NPS) pollutant response is quantified for four headwater basins of the Occoquan River in northern Virginia using 24 years of observed rainfall, basin discharge, water chemistry, and derived land use/land cover (LULC) data. Long-term summaries document that several hydrologic and NPS pollutant delivery characteristics in the urbanizing Cub Run basin are significantly different from adjacent non-urban basins. Higher annual NPS fluxes of total suspended solids (TSS), phosphorus (P), and nitrogen (N) in Cub Run are identified with periods of increased soil disturbance from urban land development and significantly increased storm volumes resulting from higher mean impervious cover. Long-term summaries of nutrient flux are consistent with literature documenting increased ratios of particulate to soluble nutrients with increased discharge. Storm fluxes of NPS particulate P, soluble P, particulate N, and soluble N make up 92, 67, 89, and 50 percent, respectively, of total NPS nutrient fluxes from all headwater basins, with between 88 and 98 percent of mean annual TSS fluxes delivered by storm flow. Higher sediment and nutrient fluxes observed in Cub Run basin during the summer and fall growing season after 1983 demonstrate the impact of replacing vegetated cover with urban impervious surface (IS). Annual regression models indicate that mean IS above 10 percent and precipitation are significantly associated with total basin discharge (r2=0.65). The positive association of annual storm soluble phosphorus flux with cumulative mean IS suggests the need for continued evaluation of urban NPS soluble phosphorus strategies. Urban soil disturbance is indicated by measuring the annual change in mean IS (delta IS). Regression models show that urban soil disturbance is a significant source of TSS flux in all seasons. Long-term total soluble phosphorus and nitrogen fluxes are significantly and positively associated with precipitation, delta IS, and agricultural land use (r2=0.50 and 0.58, respectively). The significant impact of urbanization on hydrologic and NPS pollutant flux, especially during the growing season, is a major finding of this study. / Ph. D.

Municipal separate storm sewer system (MS4) permittees face costly obligations to reduce pollutant loadings needed to achieve waste load allocations (WLAs) and meet total maximum daily loads (TMDLs). Street sweeping is potentially an effective BMP since streets exist throughout urban watersheds, often are directly connected to the storm sewer, and are found to contain an abundance of contaminants. Although pollutant removal from street sweeping has been evaluated for decades, an understanding of the impact on water quality in receiving streams is elusive. Due to numerous variables, the large number of samples necessary to measure impact in receiving streams may never be obtained. In response, modeled pollutant removal efficiencies based on frequency of sweeping have been recommended to the Chesapeake Bay Program, but these results are suspect. Alternatively, the amount of swept material has emerged as a method to quantify reductions. A sampling study was conducted to measure pollutants in swept material. The study identified the fraction of material susceptible to transport in runoff based on timing of sweeping in relation to runoff events. Based on observed pollutant concentration associations with particle size, the study results in estimates of pollutant concentrations for the fraction of material susceptible to downstream transport, dependent on duration since the last rainfall and type of surface swept, whether the area is a streets or a parking lot. Pollutant loadings and required reductions to achieve the Chesapeake Bay WLAs for various land use sample areas are computed for an average year. Modeled removal efficiencies and results from the sampling study were employed to assess impacts from street sweeping. Modeled efficiencies predict significantly lower impact than measurements of pollutants susceptible to runoff in swept material. Modeled loadings are inconsistent with measurements of swept materials and the rigorous sweeping frequency required for modeled removal efficiency credit appears to be unnecessary. / Doctor of Philosophy / Many localities, state agencies and other public entities that own storm sewer systems are increasingly required to reduce pollutants discharged from their systems to surface waters as a result of programs stemming from the Clean Water Act. Traditional stormwater management practices, such as retention ponds, appear limited towards providing the total pollutant reductions necessary due to physical constraints, opportunity and cost. Street sweeping is potentially an effective alternative practice since streets exist throughout urban watersheds, often are directly connected to the storm sewer, are found to contain an abundance of contaminants and can be cost effective. Although pollutant removal from street sweeping has been evaluated for decades, an understanding of the pollutants removed from stormwater is elusive. Past studies suggest the large number of samples necessary to measure impact from sweeping in receiving streams may never be obtained. In response, pollutant removal estimates have been made using computer models, but modeled results are suspect since they cannot be calibrated. Alternatively, a measure of swept material has emerged as a method to quantify pollutant reductions. A sampling study was conducted to measure pollutants in swept material. Results identify the fraction of swept material washed from the swept surface dependent on timing of sweeping in relation to the duration since the last rainfall. Based on observed pollutant concentration associations with particle size, the study results in estimates of concentrations for the fraction of material susceptible to downstream transport, dependent on duration since the last rainfall and type of surface swept, whether the area is a streets or a parking lot. Application of the results are compared to modeled removal efficiencies towards achieving regulatory compliance within various land use sample areas. Modeled efficiencies predict significantly lower impact than measurements of pollutants susceptible to runoff in swept material. Rigorous sweeping frequency required for modeled removal efficiency credit appears to be unnecessary.

Stream ecosystems are increasingly at risk for thermal impairment as urbanization intensifies, resulting in more heated runoff from impervious cover that is less likely to be cooled naturally. While several best management practices, including bioretention filters, have been able to reduce thermal pollution, success has been limited. The extent of thermal mitigation required to prevent ecological damage is unknown. A calibrated runoff temperature model of a case study watershed in Blacksburg, VA was developed to determine the cumulative treatment volume of bioretention filters required to reduce thermal impacts caused by runoff from development in the watershed to biologically acceptable levels. A future build out scenario of the study watershed was also analyzed. Results from this study established that runoff thermal pollution cannot be fully reduced to goal thresholds during all storms using bioretention filter retrofits. While retrofitting significantly decreased temperatures and heat exports relative to the controls, increasing treatment volumes did not really enhance mitigation. Alternate thermal mitigation methods which actively remove runoff volume should be considered where more thermal mitigation is required. / Master of Science / Stream temperature is a significant ecological, biological, and chemical property affecting the long-term health of streams. However, as development intensifies, stream ecosystems are increasingly at risk of being damaged by thermal pollution, which causes warmer and less stable temperatures that distress aquatic organisms. While several stormwater management methods that reduce runoff-related pollution, known as best management practices (BMPs), were found to also decrease thermal pollution, their success has been limited. Furthermore, the extent of thermal mitigation required to prevent ecological damage is unclear. This study aimed to determine how much treatment by a popular BMP, the bioretention filter, was necessary across a watershed in Blacksburg, VA to adequately reduce thermal pollution to protect stream health. Mitigation impacts were tested on both existing and predicted future development conditions through model simulations. Results from this study established that thermal pollution from runoff cannot be fully reduced to goal thresholds consistently using bioretention filter retrofits. While retrofitting significantly decreased thermal pollution, increasing treatment volume did not considerably enhance mitigation. Results suggested that bioretention filters are not an effective method, and alternate thermal mitigation practices which actively remove runoff volume should instead be considered where intensive reductions in thermal pollution are necessary.

Authorities of municipal separate storm sewer systems (MS4s) are required to address illicit discharges as part of the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) stormwater program. Field reconnaissance is an effective measure to detect and identify illicit discharges, but requires substantial staff and financial resources to conduct. While risk analysis techniques and guidelines have been developed to facilitate MS4 prioritization of field operations, neither a standard set of indicators nor a standard operating procedure has been adopted. This study investigates the relationships among indicators of illicit discharge potential (IDP) and the locations of illicit discharges in two Virginia MS4s. Results of the study indicate that certain risk factors are statistically more effective at predicting IDP, suggesting that a core set of factors can be used to map illicit discharge risk. The results also show that risk mapping tools are significantly impacted by uncertainty in model inputs. Recommendations are provided for MS4s interested in pursuing IDP risk mapping as a tool to improve cost-effectiveness and guide illicit discharge program implementation. / Master of Science

The use of real-time control (RTC) as an adaptation technique for improving existing stormwater systems has been gaining attention in recent years for its ability to enhance water quality and quantity treatment. A case study RTC retrofit of seven existing detention basins was simulated for a small (162 ha), urbanized watershed in Blacksburg, VA. Two heuristic, reactive control algorithms were tested and compared for their ability to improve hydraulic conditions at each detention basin and the watershed outlet through manipulation of an actuated valve, under various permutations of RTC retrofitting (single facility, multiple facilities, etc.). Change in peak flow during 24-hour design storms was assessed. RTC only reduced peak flows at some of the facilities for storms with a return period of 2 years or less. For larger storms, RTC maintained or increased peak flow rates. During a 15-year simulation with historic precipitation data, total duration of erosive flows was reduced for most facility retrofit simulations; however, the duration of high intensity flows increased, or remained unchanged. This result was also reflected at the watershed outlet. / Master of Science / Stormwater management helps protect natural waterways from the harmful impacts of human development. A growing field of research is investigating the potential for “smart” technologies to improve the efficiency of existing stormwater facilities. This study investigates the application of a “smart” stormwater retrofit, known as real-time control (RTC), to existing stormwater management facilities located in a small case study watershed. The RTC system is composed of hypothetical internet-connected sensors and control valves which control flows at several points within the test watershed. Two control algorithms were tested, and compared to the current conditions (scenario with no RTC), for a large range of storm events. Results of this study found that RTC would lead to improved stream health for most rainfall events, but could potentially worsen conditions for the largest, most rare storm events. In addition, RTC was found to be much more effective at some points in the watershed than other points. Prediction of where RTC will be most effective should be the focus of future research.

Highway runoff and its pollutants are of growing concern. These pollutants require treatment as their concentration often are increased. A common removal method is the use of sedimentation ponds that removes particulates through gravity. However, sedimentation does not remove the pollutants inside very fine particulate material or the dissolved pollutants. An additional treatment step is required to remove these pollutants and necessary to reach more stringent discharge demands. In this report, the removal of metals was studied on stormwater after sedimentation in a dam in the existing treatment facility at Lilla Essingen. The runoff reaching the facility largely comes from the highway Essingeleden, which has an annual average daily traffic of 140 000 vehicles. The commercial filter material D-Rainclean was used in this study, which started in late August 2021 and ended in November 2021. The filter material was filled equally into two separate filter wells. After sedimentation, the runoff was pumped to each filter well with a constant flow of around 600 L/h. This load caused a hydraulic retention time of about 41 minutes. The stormwater flowed through the filter material from the bottom towards its surface, i.e. upward flow, creating saturated conditions. The removal of dissolved zinc (Zn) was just above 90% while dissolved copper (Cu) was in average removed by 50 %. The effluent concentrations of Cu were generally above the regulation limits set by Järfälla municipality and Gothenburg city. Dissolved calcium (Ca) and potassium (K) was released by the filter material itself through the entire trial and dissolved vanadium (V) was released initially but decreased continuously and reached close to zero at the end of the trial. Influent stormwater concentrations of sodium (Na), magnesium (Mg), chromium (Cr) and molybdenum (Mo) was unaffected by the filter as was the dissolved fraction of nickel (Ni), iron (Fe) and aluminium (Al). Particulate material was removed by the filters. However, at the end of the trial a release of particulate material was observed. This is likely caused by filter erosion that occurred through the combination of clogging and the high surface load. Surface loading and retention time was elevated during the trials. The sharp increase of suspended solids loads in November followed by increased filter pressure drop shows the importance of having a functional sedimentation to prevent physical clogging of the filter media. / Dagvatten från vägar och föreningarna inuti detta vatten är ett ökande problem. Avskiljningen av dessa föroreningar är en utmaning, en konventionell reningsmetod är användandet av sedimenteringsdammar för att avskilja de partikulära föroreningarna. Med hårdare krav på utsläpp av metaller krävs ytterligare reningsmetoder för att hantera de lösta metallföreningarna i dagvatten, vilka ej kan avskiljas med sedimentering. Av speciellt intresse är de lösta fraktionerna av zink (Zn) och koppar (Cu). Zink (Zn) och koppar (Cu) är av störst intresse när de förekommer till stor del i löst form, varvid de ej tas bort i sedimenteringsdammar. Försöket i den här rapporten testar avskiljningsförmågan hos det reaktiva filtermaterialet D-Rainclean under hög ytbelastning, 0,35 m/h och kort uppehållstid, 41 min. Dagvattnet kommer från ett område på 1,76 ha där majoriteten av ytan består av hårt trafikerad väg. Dagvattnet når två separata reaktiva filter efter försedimentering. Filtermaterialet ligger fördelat i två filterbrunnar, F1 och F2, med samma mängd D-Rainclean.Totalt passerade ungefär 3000 provolymer genom filtren. Den totala mängden suspenderat material som belastade filtren var 35 kg. Efter 600 porvolymer uppstod ett tryckfall på 40 cm för både F1 och F2. En 60 cm tryckpelare nåddes i båda filtren efter ungefär 1000 till 1200 porvolymer. Under flöden med hög turbiditet mot slutet av försöket nådde tryckfallet 110 cm för F1 och över 80 cm för F2.Avskiljningen av löst Zn var över 90%. Avskiljning av löst Cu var runt 50 %. Koncentration av Cu efter de reaktiva filtren översteg de riktvärden som satts av Järfälla kommun samt Göteborg stad. Löst kalcium (Ca) och kalium (K) släpptes av filtren under hela försöket. Löst vanadin (V) släpptes också av filtret men halten V minskade kontinuerligt och nådde till slut en koncentration nära detektionsgränsen. Inkommande koncentrationer av natrium (Na), magnesium (Mg), krom (Cr) och molybden (Mo) var opåverkade av filtret, likaså den lösta fraktionen av nickel (Ni), järn (Fe) och aluminium (Al). Majoriteten av metallernas partikelfraktioner avskildes av filtren men mot slutet började filtren släppa partikulärt bundna metaller.Uppehållstiden för vattnet i filtret var antagligen för kort för att få hög avskiljning av Cu varför den föreslås att den förlängs om det är praktiskt möjligt.

Over the past several decades, flooding events in the United States have become the most frequent and costliest natural disaster. In the US, city and regional leaders are planning new water and flood mitigation infrastructure in response to the challenges of flooding, uneven urbanization, and racialized exclusion. Historically, projects to keep water out have never been universal or evenly applied. Yet, ‘learning to live’ with water, a key tagline in current sustainable development paradigms, masks how histories of racialized land development are entangled with contemporary water infrastructure projects and are productive of regional planning power. This dissertation centers racial capitalism in analysis of how contemporary water infrastructure projects are entangled with, and informed by, histories of racialized land development in the mid-Mississippi River Region. Through two case studies on flood mitigation infrastructure in eastern Missouri, I trace the historic development of infrastructures that shape the ongoing racialization of space, infrastructure (re)development and community vulnerability to flooding today. The case studies draw from a range of data, including archival research on histories of land and infrastructure development, participant observation of planning meetings, professional conferences, and local neighborhood initiatives, and field observations of the built environment. I argue that 1) scholarship concerned with social-environmental inequities should engage racial capitalism as a framework to “provincialize” urban theory and environmental racism as a means to theorize uneven infrastructural provisioning as a mode of urbanization that (re)produces social difference and value creation under racial capitalism, 2) the historical development of flood control in the Mississippi region was fundamental to the development of racial capitalism because it consolidated regional planning power through methods of social and environmental domination, and 3) contemporary infrastructural redevelopment and flood mitigation projects must contend with the path dependencies of structural racism to disrupt existing cycles of marginalization across social differences to deliver meaningfully on equity goals. Ultimately, this study finds that flood-mitigation infrastructures, including levees, floodways, and dams, on the Missouri River and gray and green stormwater infrastructure (GSI) in the City of St. Louis are embedded in broader social-environmental networks and regional power blocs, whose regional history and dynamics have created distinct patterns of uneven urbanization and vulnerability to flooding disasters. Because infrastructure projects are embedded in the built environment for decades, the social relations comprising their implementation, or lack thereof, reach into present and future development considerations. Thus, when planning projects fail to grapple with path dependencies of past infrastructure projects, they may reproduce structural racism and re-create patterns of uneven urbanization and vulnerability to flooding disasters. / Geography

Snow handling practices are managed by Swedish municipalities, and urban snow is usually removed to be placed at a central or local snow deposit. Snow deriving from urban areas can contain environmental pollutants in various extents. Through atmospheric deposition, traffic emissions and road maintenance strategies, urban snow accumulates pollutants such as metals, organic and inorganic compounds, which in turn spread to receiving waters and soil through the meltwater. During wintertime, snow is ploughed and removed from highways and roads to insure safe conditions for drivers, cyclists, and pedestrians. This study has analyzed Swedish municipalities snow handling strategies regarding current environmental law and degree of environmental protection on land-based snow deposit sites. Through a semi-qualitative web survey sent to all 290 Swedish municipalities, respondents were asked questions regarding the organization’s snow handling strategies and environmentally protective actions within their snow deposits. The results of this study showed that the use of snow deposits varies in different regions, and that most snow deposits are not equipped with any technical infrastructure to mitigate eventual environmental effects on the local environment. Environmental management in the form of systematic sampling of snow, soil, groundwater and receiving waters are found to be rare, which sequentially makes it difficult for municipalities to investigate the possible local environmental effects caused by depositing snow. In conclusion, environmental investigation and protection at snow deposit sites can be crucial to hinder further local pollution in some areas, but is as of yet not constantly executed by current practices.

Implementing optimal Low Impact Development (LID) practices has grown in popularity as a means of mitigating the adverse effects of urbanization and climate change. As such incorporating aspects of resilience for optimal LID design has become paramount. This study focuses on identifying the current LID optimization strategies and associated research gaps as well as assessing whether a quantitative approach to measure LID resilience exists. To do so, a systematic and bibliometric literature review on LIDs optimization and resilience is first conducted, based on which resilience, climate change, and uncertainty are recognised as hotspot keywords. The review also showed that no LID resilience quantification technique was available. Based on the latter outcome and to facilitate LID’s optimal design in future, this research proposes a new resilience quantification approach of LID by developing set of equations using Analytical Probabilistic Approach (APA) and continuous simulation approach using SWMM. The equations consider LID’s functionality and assess resilience using three indices: robustness, rapidity and serviceability. A new overall resilience index (the product of robustness and serviceability) and reliability index (the product of volumetric, occurrence, and temporal reliability) are proposed using different area ratios between contributing catchment and LID area to assure a resilient and safe LID system. LID costing tool of the Sustainable Technologies Evaluation Program (STEP) is subsequently utilized to estimate the capital cost of LID. Finally, a user-oriented design guideline is proposed for a cost-effective, resilient, and reliable LID system. Although this study adopts bioretention (BR) as a demonstration of the approach utility, the developed approach is applicable to any form of LID practices. / Thesis / Master of Applied Science (MASc) / There is a critical need to develop and implement optimal low-impact development (LID) practices in the field of stormwater management to mitigate the adverse effects of urbanization and climate change. This thesis is focused on developing quantitative resilient measurement approach of LID designs. A comprehensive literature review is first carried out, focusing on identifying various optimization methodologies, relevant gaps, and resilience assessment techniques. Subsequently, a novel resilience evaluation approach is developed, using bioretention (BR). By constructing a new reliability index, the entire BR system's reliability can also be assessed. Finally, a cost-effective, resilient and reliable design guideline for BR system is proposed. Although bioretention (BR) is used as an example in this study, the developed approach opens the gate to quantify the resilience of all types of LID practices.

No description available.