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<p>The study of character strengths is a promising new approach available to positive psychology in its campaign to focus on the positive aspects of people, work and society, and encourage individuals to thrive in all aspects of their lives. Character strengths have been linked to satisfaction with life, but no previous work has investigated <em>how</em> these positive aspects of individuals lead to greater life satisfaction. The current work investigates how different combinations of character strengths, termed strength profiles, predict the use of two emotion regulation strategies, cognitive reappraisal and emotional suppression. Also investigated was the ability of these strength profiles to predict associative creativity, positive and negative affect, and life satisfaction.</p> <p>A sample of 205 students was used. Participants completed the Virtues in Action survey of character strengths, Positive and Negative Affect Schedule, Satisfaction with Life Scale and Emotion Regulation Questionnaire. An experimental design was employed to investigate the effects of positive and negative emotions on performance on a task requiring associative creativity, the Remote Associates Test. Furthermore, the relationship between character strengths and emotion regulation strategy was investigated.</p> <p>Character strengths predicted cognitive reappraisal as a preferred method of emotion regulation. Character strengths also positively predicted positive affect, negatively predicted negative affect, and were positively associated with satisfaction with life. Additionally, cognitive reappraisal mediated the relationship between a profile designed to up-regulate positive emotions and self-reports of positive emotions.</p> <p>Results were compared for the proposed strength profiles and Peterson and Seligman's (2004) original six virtues. Differences in predictive ability between the strength profiles and virtues are highlighted. Finally, theoretical and practical implications and future research directions are suggested.</p> / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

The purpose of this pilot and main study was to examine teachers' perceptions of the post No Child Left Behind (NCLB) elementary classroom, the perceived changes, and the implications for teachers' feelings of empowerment and student test anxiety. Previous investigators have agreed that the teacher's voice has been missing, but needed in test anxiety research. By engaging veteran teachers who had experience both before and after the enactment of NCLB in reflective conversation about their experiences, valuable information was gained concerning whether or not teachers felt empowered to perform their duties and what impact they perceived that high stakes standardized testing has had on both teacher anxiety and student test anxiety. This information could be used to inform educational practice and decision making. Triangulation of data sources included narrative data collected through face-to-face interviews with the teachers, the writing of field notes, interview process notes, and reflective journal entries from both the pilot and main studies. Three clear themes emerged that fit the division of the data by the research questions: change in the teachers' experiences, change in teaching vocabulary, and change in the students' experiences. These themes emerged through a process of categorical-content perspective analysis for coding the data and sorting it into themes. The Hermeneutic narrative analysis approach was used to analyze and identify the meaning of these related experiences and stories. The context of the pilot and main studies was elementary schools in a rural school system in the Southeastern United States. The participants were eleven elementary teachers from grades three through five with experience before and after NCLB enactment who taught core academic subjects. Member checks of the interview transcripts and data analysis enhanced the credibility of these reports. The analysis revealed both positive and negative perceptions of the changes in the classroom experience of these elementary teachers, their feelings of empowerment, and the impact of the changes on the test anxiety of their students. Participants across the pilot and main studies indicated that increased stress, pressure, frustration, and professional struggles have had a negative impact on teacher anxiety, teacher efficacy beliefs, and student test anxiety. / Ph. D.

This qualitative study investigated the experiences of eight non-Muslim Caucasian Licensed Marriage and Family Therapists working with South Asian and Middle Eastern Muslim clients. Semi-structured interviews were used to examine the challenges and strengths that resulted from ethnic/racial and religious differences with clients of this population, and how the challenges and strengths were managed in therapy. The data were analyzed using thematic analysis and the themes that emerged were organized based on the areas of inquiry, which included: challenges that come from ethnic/racial and religious differences, strategies and recommendations to address ethnic/racial and religious differences and the challenges created by them, strengths that come from ethnic/racial and religious differences, and what therapists needed. Limitations, clinical implications, and directions for future research are discussed. / Master of Science

The emergence of the positive psychology movement has brought the attention to individuals’ strengths and their deficits. Specifically of interest within an organisational context is the extent to which employees’ strengths are used and their deficits are improved. Specifically, organisations may provide their support for employees’ strengths use and deficit improvement, and individuals themselves can also proactively seek opportunities to use their strengths and improve their deficits. However, little attention has been paid to strengths use and deficit improvement in empirical research. One reason for this may be a lack of a clear conceptualisation of organisational support for strengths use and deficit improvement and individuals’ proactive strengths use and deficit improvement. Furthermore, this lacking conceptualisation hinders research to empirically measure these constructs, since no measuring instrument exists to measure strengths use and deficit improvement by the organisation and the individual. In addition, no empirical research has been conducted to determine whether strengths use or deficit improvement, or possibly a combined approach focusing on both, may be more beneficial for the organisation in terms of work-related outcomes such as work engagement, learning, job satisfaction and turnover intention. Moreover, the relationship between work engagement (a well-established positive psychology construct) with organisational support for strengths use and deficit improvement and specifically individuals’ proactive strengths use and deficit improvement is unexplored. In light of the above gaps in the literature, the primary objectives of this study were: (a) To conceptualise a taxonomy of strengths use and deficit improvement and to develop and validate the Strengths Use and Deficit Improvement Questionnaire (SUDIQ) that measures four constructs, namely perceived organisational support for strengths use (POSSU), perceived organisational support for deficit improvement (POSDI), proactive behaviour towards strengths use (PBSU) and proactive behaviour towards deficit improvement (PBDI); (b) to examine the item bias, structural equivalence, measurement unit equivalence and scalar equivalence of the SUDIQ among South African ethnic groups; (c) to examine whether POSSU, POSDI or a combination of these two will lead to the best organisational outcomes (i.e. work engagement, learning, job satisfaction and turnover intention); and (d) to determine whether (1) work engagement mediates the relationship between POSSU and PBSU and between POSDI and PBDI, or (2) whether proactive behaviour (PBSU and PBDI) mediates the relationship between POSSU and POSDI with work engagement. The above research objectives were addressed in four empirical, quantitative research articles. For the purpose of research article 1, the Strengths Use and Deficit Improvement Scale (SUDIQ) was developed by following the guidelines of DeVellis (2003). A pilot study was conducted among a heterogeneous sample (N = 241). The validation study was conducted among a heterogeneous sample (N = 699) in various industries in South Africa. For research article 2, the item bias, construct equivalence, measurement unit equivalence and scalar equivalence of the SUDIQ were assessed among a heterogeneous sample (N = 858) in various South African industries. For the purpose of article 3, the relationships between POSSU, POSDI and a combined approach with the outcomes, work engagement, learning, job satisfaction and turnover intention were examined among a sample of 266 public school teachers in the Western Cape. Finally, to determine the relationships between work engagement and PBSU and PBDI and also the mediation effect in a structural model, a sample of 378 employees in the financial industry was investigated. For the pilot study in article 1, an initial item pool of 33 items was generated. In the exploratory factor analysis of this pilot study, four distinct factors were extracted and were labelled perceived organisational support for strengths use (POSSU; eight items), perceived organisational support for deficit improvement (POSDI; eight items), proactive behaviour towards strengths use (PBSU; nine items) and proactive behaviour towards deficit improvement (PBDI; eight items). The factorial validity was confirmed with a confirmatory factor analysis that confirmed the hypothesised four-factor structure of the SUDIQ. The POSSU and POSDI dimensions were positively related to autonomy and participation in decision-making, two job resources, and confirming the convergent validity of these two scales. The PBSU and PBDI scales were found to be positively related to self-efficacy, establishing the convergent validity of these two scales. The criterion-related validity was established through the positive correlation of the four SUDIQ dimensions with work engagement and the negative correlation with burnout. According to the results of the bias and equivalence analysis in article 2, the uniformly biased items included one POSSU item, two POSDI items, two PBSU items and three PBDI items. Three POSSU items were found to be non-uniformly biased. These items that were identified as having either uniform or non-uniform bias for black, white or coloured participants were discarded from further analyses. The results confirmed the SUDIQ to be equivalent across the three ethnic groups in terms of construct equivalence, measurement unit equivalence and scalar equivalence. The results of research article 3 indicate that both strengths use and deficit improvement are important predictors of work engagement, learning, job satisfaction and turnover intention. Learning was higher and turnover intention lower for individuals experiencing a combined approach compared to those believing that their school does not support them to either use their strengths or improve their deficits. Furthermore, a combined approach was associated with higher job satisfaction than a strengths-based approach, and a deficit-based approach was shown to be associated with higher levels of work engagement and turnover intentions compared to an environment where neither employees’ strengths nor deficits are addressed. Finally, in article 4, two competing models were tested where in model 1 work engagement was specified as a mediator in the relationship between POSSU and PBSU and between POSDI and PBDI. In model 2, proactive behaviour (PBSU and PBDI) was specified as a mediator in the relationship between POSSU and POSDI with work engagement. The results indicated that model 1 fitted the data better compared to model 2. Therefore, it was found that work engagement mediates the relationship between POSSU and PBSU and also between POSDI and PBDI. Recommendations were made for organisations and for future research. / PhD (Industrial Psychology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

Traditionally, organisations have focused efforts in developing their people towards improving so-called areas of deficiency, identifying the flaws of employees and putting intervention structures in place to rectify and redress these areas. Limited efforts have seen the accentuation of employees‟ strengths as a means of developing those employees‟ full potential, as prescribed in the Positive Psychology. In a balanced organisational development approach, both areas of strength and deficit should be developed in order to harness optimum human potential and growth. This balanced approach is critical, as it provides for full spectrum development of the individual and creates opportunity for the attainment of positive work-related outcomes, such as work engagement. The objective of this research study was to test a structural model of job resources in the form of organisational strengths use and organisational deficit improvement; personal resources in the form of individual strengths use and individual deficit improvement; and work engagement; to relate the conceptualised job- and personal resources to established job- and personal resources in the nomological net and to investigate possible structural paths between job- and personal resources and work engagement. This study was conducted in order to gain more knowledge and a better understanding of the outcomes of following a balanced strengths use and deficit improvement approach (SDBA), both from an organisational (job resource) and individual (personal resource) perspective. Participants in the research were sport coaches from primary and secondary schools. The Mplus and SPSS programmes were utilised for purposes of statistical analysis. A cross-sectional research approach was used. An availability sample (N = 364) of teachers who act as sport coaches in Gauteng, North-West and Free State based schools was used. Competing measurement models were used to confirm factor structures for adapted versions of the Strengths use and Deficit Improvement Questionnaire (SUDIQ), as well as the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES). These measurement models confirmed a four-factor and one-factor model structure for the adapted versions of the SUDIQ and UWES respectively. After factor structures had been confirmed, reliability of the adapted measures was assessed by means of Cronbach alpha coefficient values. The relation of the conceptualised job resources of organisational strengths use and organisational deficit improvement to established job resources was assessed by incorporating the job resources of opportunities for learning and independence at work into the study. In the case of the conceptualised personal resources, individual strengths use and individual deficit improvement were related to self-efficacy and self-esteem. This was done in order to theoretically relate these variables in the nomological net of other job resources and personal resources. Subsequently, structural equation modelling was used to investigate the relationship between the job resources of organisational strengths use and organisational deficit improvement, personal resources individual strengths use and individual deficit improvement; and work engagement. Through categorical estimation the research found individual strengths use to be the strongest predictor of work engagement, followed by individual deficit improvement and organisational strengths use. Organisational deficit improvement was proven as a statistically insignificant predictor of work engagement. After conclusions for the study were drawn, recommendations for the organisation, individual as well as for future research were made. / MCom (Industrial Psychology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2013

The emergence of the positive psychology movement has brought the attention to individuals’ strengths and their deficits. Specifically of interest within an organisational context is the extent to which employees’ strengths are used and their deficits are improved. Specifically, organisations may provide their support for employees’ strengths use and deficit improvement, and individuals themselves can also proactively seek opportunities to use their strengths and improve their deficits. However, little attention has been paid to strengths use and deficit improvement in empirical research. One reason for this may be a lack of a clear conceptualisation of organisational support for strengths use and deficit improvement and individuals’ proactive strengths use and deficit improvement. Furthermore, this lacking conceptualisation hinders research to empirically measure these constructs, since no measuring instrument exists to measure strengths use and deficit improvement by the organisation and the individual. In addition, no empirical research has been conducted to determine whether strengths use or deficit improvement, or possibly a combined approach focusing on both, may be more beneficial for the organisation in terms of work-related outcomes such as work engagement, learning, job satisfaction and turnover intention. Moreover, the relationship between work engagement (a well-established positive psychology construct) with organisational support for strengths use and deficit improvement and specifically individuals’ proactive strengths use and deficit improvement is unexplored. In light of the above gaps in the literature, the primary objectives of this study were: (a) To conceptualise a taxonomy of strengths use and deficit improvement and to develop and validate the Strengths Use and Deficit Improvement Questionnaire (SUDIQ) that measures four constructs, namely perceived organisational support for strengths use (POSSU), perceived organisational support for deficit improvement (POSDI), proactive behaviour towards strengths use (PBSU) and proactive behaviour towards deficit improvement (PBDI); (b) to examine the item bias, structural equivalence, measurement unit equivalence and scalar equivalence of the SUDIQ among South African ethnic groups; (c) to examine whether POSSU, POSDI or a combination of these two will lead to the best organisational outcomes (i.e. work engagement, learning, job satisfaction and turnover intention); and (d) to determine whether (1) work engagement mediates the relationship between POSSU and PBSU and between POSDI and PBDI, or (2) whether proactive behaviour (PBSU and PBDI) mediates the relationship between POSSU and POSDI with work engagement. The above research objectives were addressed in four empirical, quantitative research articles. For the purpose of research article 1, the Strengths Use and Deficit Improvement Scale (SUDIQ) was developed by following the guidelines of DeVellis (2003). A pilot study was conducted among a heterogeneous sample (N = 241). The validation study was conducted among a heterogeneous sample (N = 699) in various industries in South Africa. For research article 2, the item bias, construct equivalence, measurement unit equivalence and scalar equivalence of the SUDIQ were assessed among a heterogeneous sample (N = 858) in various South African industries. For the purpose of article 3, the relationships between POSSU, POSDI and a combined approach with the outcomes, work engagement, learning, job satisfaction and turnover intention were examined among a sample of 266 public school teachers in the Western Cape. Finally, to determine the relationships between work engagement and PBSU and PBDI and also the mediation effect in a structural model, a sample of 378 employees in the financial industry was investigated. For the pilot study in article 1, an initial item pool of 33 items was generated. In the exploratory factor analysis of this pilot study, four distinct factors were extracted and were labelled perceived organisational support for strengths use (POSSU; eight items), perceived organisational support for deficit improvement (POSDI; eight items), proactive behaviour towards strengths use (PBSU; nine items) and proactive behaviour towards deficit improvement (PBDI; eight items). The factorial validity was confirmed with a confirmatory factor analysis that confirmed the hypothesised four-factor structure of the SUDIQ. The POSSU and POSDI dimensions were positively related to autonomy and participation in decision-making, two job resources, and confirming the convergent validity of these two scales. The PBSU and PBDI scales were found to be positively related to self-efficacy, establishing the convergent validity of these two scales. The criterion-related validity was established through the positive correlation of the four SUDIQ dimensions with work engagement and the negative correlation with burnout. According to the results of the bias and equivalence analysis in article 2, the uniformly biased items included one POSSU item, two POSDI items, two PBSU items and three PBDI items. Three POSSU items were found to be non-uniformly biased. These items that were identified as having either uniform or non-uniform bias for black, white or coloured participants were discarded from further analyses. The results confirmed the SUDIQ to be equivalent across the three ethnic groups in terms of construct equivalence, measurement unit equivalence and scalar equivalence. The results of research article 3 indicate that both strengths use and deficit improvement are important predictors of work engagement, learning, job satisfaction and turnover intention. Learning was higher and turnover intention lower for individuals experiencing a combined approach compared to those believing that their school does not support them to either use their strengths or improve their deficits. Furthermore, a combined approach was associated with higher job satisfaction than a strengths-based approach, and a deficit-based approach was shown to be associated with higher levels of work engagement and turnover intentions compared to an environment where neither employees’ strengths nor deficits are addressed. Finally, in article 4, two competing models were tested where in model 1 work engagement was specified as a mediator in the relationship between POSSU and PBSU and between POSDI and PBDI. In model 2, proactive behaviour (PBSU and PBDI) was specified as a mediator in the relationship between POSSU and POSDI with work engagement. The results indicated that model 1 fitted the data better compared to model 2. Therefore, it was found that work engagement mediates the relationship between POSSU and PBSU and also between POSDI and PBDI. Recommendations were made for organisations and for future research. / PhD (Industrial Psychology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

Traditionally, organisations have focused efforts in developing their people towards improving so-called areas of deficiency, identifying the flaws of employees and putting intervention structures in place to rectify and redress these areas. Limited efforts have seen the accentuation of employees‟ strengths as a means of developing those employees‟ full potential, as prescribed in the Positive Psychology. In a balanced organisational development approach, both areas of strength and deficit should be developed in order to harness optimum human potential and growth. This balanced approach is critical, as it provides for full spectrum development of the individual and creates opportunity for the attainment of positive work-related outcomes, such as work engagement. The objective of this research study was to test a structural model of job resources in the form of organisational strengths use and organisational deficit improvement; personal resources in the form of individual strengths use and individual deficit improvement; and work engagement; to relate the conceptualised job- and personal resources to established job- and personal resources in the nomological net and to investigate possible structural paths between job- and personal resources and work engagement. This study was conducted in order to gain more knowledge and a better understanding of the outcomes of following a balanced strengths use and deficit improvement approach (SDBA), both from an organisational (job resource) and individual (personal resource) perspective. Participants in the research were sport coaches from primary and secondary schools. The Mplus and SPSS programmes were utilised for purposes of statistical analysis. A cross-sectional research approach was used. An availability sample (N = 364) of teachers who act as sport coaches in Gauteng, North-West and Free State based schools was used. Competing measurement models were used to confirm factor structures for adapted versions of the Strengths use and Deficit Improvement Questionnaire (SUDIQ), as well as the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES). These measurement models confirmed a four-factor and one-factor model structure for the adapted versions of the SUDIQ and UWES respectively. After factor structures had been confirmed, reliability of the adapted measures was assessed by means of Cronbach alpha coefficient values. The relation of the conceptualised job resources of organisational strengths use and organisational deficit improvement to established job resources was assessed by incorporating the job resources of opportunities for learning and independence at work into the study. In the case of the conceptualised personal resources, individual strengths use and individual deficit improvement were related to self-efficacy and self-esteem. This was done in order to theoretically relate these variables in the nomological net of other job resources and personal resources. Subsequently, structural equation modelling was used to investigate the relationship between the job resources of organisational strengths use and organisational deficit improvement, personal resources individual strengths use and individual deficit improvement; and work engagement. Through categorical estimation the research found individual strengths use to be the strongest predictor of work engagement, followed by individual deficit improvement and organisational strengths use. Organisational deficit improvement was proven as a statistically insignificant predictor of work engagement. After conclusions for the study were drawn, recommendations for the organisation, individual as well as for future research were made. / MCom (Industrial Psychology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2013