The SUMO protein was named Small Ubiquitin-like MOdifier because its 3-D structure was similar to Ubiquitin. In human, three SUMO proteins were discovered, namely, SUMO-1/2/3. The recombinant ¡µ1-8, 94-95 SUMO-2 protein with 10 histidine residues at its N-terminus was expressed using E. coli. BL-21(DE3), purified at 4 oC and crystallized at room temperature. The surface properties of human SUMO-1/2/3 proteins and 3-D structure of ¡µ1-8, 94-95 SUMO-2 protein were analyzed using computer modeling and X-ray diffraction technology respectively. The two-step purification by immobilized metal ion affinity chromatography(IMAC) was developed to yield ¡µ1-8, 94-95 SUMO-2 protein that reached 60 mg/ml for crystallization. On protein expression, 120 mg protein was obtained from 6 L bacterial growth broth. Crystals of ¡µ1-8, 94-95 SUMO-2 were obtained by the hanging-drop vapor diffusion method and many different crystal forms were observed. One of single crystal with triangular plate polyhedron form diffracted to 1.6 Å resolution, the other one with rectangular polyhedron form diffracted to 1.2 Å. Analysis of the diffraction pattern suggests the crystals belong to R3 space group, the former one owned unit cell parameters a= b=75.3 Å, c=29.2 Å, £\=90¢X, £]=90¢X,£^=120¢X, and the later one owned unit cell parameters a= b=74.9 Å, c=33.2 Å and the same angles respectively. The R factor and Rfree of refinement are 0.133 and 0.190 with highly precise phase on 3-D structure of SUMO-2 protein. Comparison of crystal structure between human SUMO-2 and yeast SMT3 showed that the r.m.s. deviation of C£\ coordinate is 1.054 Å. In addition, comparison of SUMO-1 NMR structure and SMT3 crystal structure showed that the r.m.s. deviation of C£\ coordinates is 2.736 Å. Hence, the structures of SUMO-2 and SMT3 are more similar each other than those of SUMO-1and SMT3.

X-ray crystallography has been around for 100 years and remains the preferred technique for solving molecular structures today. However, its reliance on the production of sufficiently large crystals is limiting, considering that crystallization cannot be achieved for a vast range of biomolecules. A promising way of circumventing this problem is the method of serial femtosecond imaging of single-molecules or nanocrystals utilizing an X-ray free-electron laser. In such an approach, X-ray pulses brief enough to outrun radiation damage and intense enough to provide usable diffraction signals are employed. This way accurate snapshots can be collected one at a time, despite the sample molecule exploding immediately following the pulse due to extreme ionization. But as opposed to in conventional crystallography, the spatial orientation of the molecule at the time of X-ray exposure is generally unknown. Consequentially, assembling the snapshots to form a three-dimensional representation of the structure of interest is cumbersome, and normally tackled using algorithms to analyze the diffraction patterns. Here we explore the idea that the explosion data can provide useful insights regarding the orientation of ubiquitin, a eukaryotic regulatory protein. Through two series of molecular dynamics simulations totaling 588 unique explosions, we found that a majority of the carbon atoms prevalent in ubiquitin are directionally limited in their respective escape paths. As such we conclude it to be theoretically possible to orient a sample with known structure based on its explosion pattern. Working with an unknown sample, we suggest these discoveries could be applicable in tandem with X-ray diffraction data to optimize image assembly.

Röntgenlicht-Freie-Elektronen-Laser (XFEL) schaffen neue Möglichkeiten für die molekulare Strukturbestimmung in Einzelmolekülexperimenten. In dieser Arbeit stelle ich zwei alternative bayessche Verfahren vor, das Orientational Bayes und das Structural Bayes Verfahren, die das Extrahieren der Strukturinformationen aus dünn besetzten und verrauschten Streuungsbildern ermöglichen. Im ersten Verfahren wird ein "Seed"-Modell verwendet, um die zugrunde liegende molekulare Orientierung für jedes aufgezeichnete Streuungsbild separat zu bestimmen. Eine verbesserte molekulare Transformation der bestrahlten Moleküle wird durch Ausrichten und Mitteln dieser Bilder im dreidimensionalen reziproken Raum erhalten. Im Structural Bayes Verfahren wird ein Realraum-Strukturmodell optimiert, sodass es am besten zum gesamten Streuungsbildersatz passt. Auf diese Weise wird ermöglicht, zwischen verschiedenen Strukturmodellen zu unterscheiden. Ich habe die Auflösung bei der Abbildung einzelner Moleküle mit unterschiedlichen Massen für verschiedene XFEL Strahlintensitäten abgeschätzt. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die erreichbare strukturelle Auflösung mit der Molekülmasse wie M^{-1/ 6} steigt. Laut dieser Skalierung ist hierbei, im Gegensatz zur traditionellen Röntgenkristallographie, die hochaufgelöste Strukturbestimmung kleiner Einzelmoleküle, im Vergleich zu großen Molekülen, schwieriger. Als Machbarkeitsnachweis des Orientational Bayes Verfahrens wurde beispielhaft die Elektronendichte eines Glutathion-Moleküls aus 20.000 synthetischen Streuungsbildern, mit durchschnittlich 82 aufgezeichneten elastisch gestreuten Photonen und bis zu 50% zusätzlichem Hintergrundrauschen pro Bild, berechnet. Um die Anwendbarkeit des Structural Bayes Verfahrens in einer de novo Strukturbestimmung zu testen, wurde zudem die Struktur des Glutathion-Moleküls in einer Monte Carlo-Verfeinerungs-Simulation gelöst, für die zufällige Aminosäure-Konformationen als Ausgangsmaterial verwendet wurden. Um zusätzlich zu prüfen, ob mehrere Längenskalen umfassende Strukturänderungen in einem komplexen Molekül unter Verwendung des Structural Bayes Verfahrens rückverfolgbar sind, wurden Konformationsänderungen von drei Immunglobulin-Domänen eines Titin-Moleküls sowie der tRNA-Translokationsvorgang im Ribosom untersucht. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass es möglich ist sowohl zwischen unterschiedlichen molekularen Konformationen zu unterscheiden als auch kleinere strukturelle Änderungen, die mit der tRNA-Translokation assoziiert sind, zu erkennen. Insgesamt betrachtet deuten die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit darauf hin, dass sich mithilfe der beiden hier vorgestellten bayesschen Verfahren die Struktur einzelner Moleküle mit atomarer Auflösung von dünn besetzten und verrauschten Röntgenstreuungsbildern aus XFEL-Einzelmolekülexperimenten für ein breites Spektrum von Molekülmassen bestimmen lässt.

The primary aim of the work presented in this thesis was to change the inducer specificity of the DntR protein in order to improve the response to DNT. The long-term goal is to use this protein in a biosensor for DNT, a signature compound for detection of the explosive TNT. Another aspect of this work was to understand the mechanisms of inducer binding and how the binding of an inducer molecule changes the DntR structure into a state that triggers transcriptional activation. In the papers included in this thesis the inducer specificity of wt DntR has been investigated under different conditions. The functional effects of specific mutations have also been investigated, in some cases in combination with structure determination using X-ray crystallography. In addition, structural data offering insights into the details of inducer binding and conformational changes upon inducer binding are presented and discussed in terms of mechanisms for transcriptional activation by DntR. Furthermore, a directed evolution strategy was employed in order to find variants of DntR with improved response to DNT. A variant with a large improvement in the DNT response was isolated and characterized. In optimized growth conditions, this DntR variant had a nearly 10-fold increase in fluorescence in response to DNT compared to wt DntR. Specific substitutions found in this DntR variant are suggested to be important for changing the inducer response. / Syftet med denna avhandling har varit att förbättra förmågan hos proteinet DntR att upptäcka DNT. Det långsiktiga målet har varit att använda DntR i en biosensor för att upptäcka sprängämnet TNT, som avger DNT som en ”signaturmolekyl”. En annan aspekt har varit att bättre förstå den detaljerade mekanismen för hur DntR fungerar. DntR är ett protein som binder till en viss DNA sekvens (promotor) och reglerar hur gener intill denna promotorsekvens läses av. När en inducerande molekyl som t.ex. DNT binder till DntR förändras proteinets struktur på ett sådant sätt att DntR kan aktivera transkription av de gener som finns intill promotor-sekvensen. För att mäta hur DntR reagerar på olika inducerande molekyler har DntR uttryckts i bakterien Escherichia coli, som också innehållit promotorn som DntR binder till. Intill promotorn sitter en gen som kodar för proteinet GFP. När en inducerande molekyl binder till DntR, slås avläses gfp-genen, och det fluorescerande proteinet GFP produceras. Ju mer GFP som produceras i cellerna, desto högre fluorescens kan uppmätas när cellerna analyseras.   I de artiklar som presenteras i avhandlingen har vi undersökt hur olika substitutioner i DntR proteinet påverkar specificiten och sensitiviteten och hur dessa egenskaper kan påverkas av olika experimentella faktorer. Effekten av substitutioner har relaterats till strukturdata, där bilder av hur proteinet ser ut på molekylär nivå har tagits fram. Dessutom presenteras även en bild av hur DntR förändras beroende på om inducerande molekyler är bundna eller inte. En sådan strukturbild ökar förståelsen för de mekanismer som gör att bindning av en inducerande molekyl orsakar en förändring av formen hos DntR på så sätt att avläsning av gener kan aktiveras. Vi har också använt en metod där evolutionära processer härmats för att få fram varianter av DntR med förbättrad respons till DNT. En variant med en drastisk ökning av DNT-responsen har isolerats, och dess egenskaper har karaktäriserats. / At the time of the doctoral defense, the following paper was unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 3: Manuscript

Understanding biological phenomena at atomic resolution is one of the keys to modern drug design. In particular, knowledge of 3D structures of proteins and their interactions with other macromolecules are necessary for designing chemical compounds that modify biological processes. Conventional methods for protein structure determinations comprise X-ray crystallography and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. These techniques can also determine the binding mode of chemical compounds. Either technique can be slow and costly, making it highly relevant to explore alternative strategies. Paramagnetic NMR spectroscopy is emerging as such an alternative technique. In order to measure the paramagnetic effects, two NMR spectra are compared that have been measured with and without a bound paramagnetic metal ion. In particular, pseudocontact shifts (PCS) of nuclear spins are easily measured as the difference (in ppm) of the chemical shifts between the two spectra. PCSs provide long range and orientation dependent restraints, allowing positioning of the spin with respect to the magnetic susceptibility tensor anisotropy (Δχ-tensor) of the metal ion. In this thesis, I used the PCS effect to computationally extract information from NMR spectra. I developed (i) a tool (called Possum) to automatically assign diamagnetic and paramagnetic spectra of the methyl groups of amino acid side chains, given structural information of the protein studied and prior knowledge of the Δχ-tensor; (ii) I designed a comprehensive software package (called Numbat) to extract Δχ-tensor parameters from assigned PCS values and the available 3D structure; and (iii) I incorporated PCS-based restraints into the protein structure prediction software CS-ROSETTA and demonstrated that this combination (PCS-ROSETTA) presents a significant improvement for de novo structure determination. The three projects serve different purposes at different stages of protein NMR studies. They could be combined in the following manner: Starting from assigned backbone PCSs, PCS-Rosetta could be used to determine the 3D structure of the protein. Possum can then be used to automatically assign the NMR resonances of the methyl groups using PCSs. Finally, Numbat can be used to fit improved Δχ-tensors to all the PCS data, analyze the quality of the Δχ-tensors and identify possible wrong assignments. Iterative repetition of this protocol would give a 3D structural model of the protein with a minimum of data. Alternatively, the Δχ-tensor parameters and PCSs could be used as input for a traditional software package such as Xplor-NIH to compute a 3D structure of the protein.

Understanding biological phenomena at atomic resolution is one of the keys to modern drug design. In particular, knowledge of 3D structures of proteins and their interactions with other macromolecules are necessary for designing chemical compounds that modify biological processes. Conventional methods for protein structure determinations comprise X-ray crystallography and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. These techniques can also determine the binding mode of chemical compounds. Either technique can be slow and costly, making it highly relevant to explore alternative strategies. Paramagnetic NMR spectroscopy is emerging as such an alternative technique. In order to measure the paramagnetic effects, two NMR spectra are compared that have been measured with and without a bound paramagnetic metal ion. In particular, pseudocontact shifts (PCS) of nuclear spins are easily measured as the difference (in ppm) of the chemical shifts between the two spectra. PCSs provide long range and orientation dependent restraints, allowing positioning of the spin with respect to the magnetic susceptibility tensor anisotropy (Δχ-tensor) of the metal ion. In this thesis, I used the PCS effect to computationally extract information from NMR spectra. I developed (i) a tool (called Possum) to automatically assign diamagnetic and paramagnetic spectra of the methyl groups of amino acid side chains, given structural information of the protein studied and prior knowledge of the Δχ-tensor; (ii) I designed a comprehensive software package (called Numbat) to extract Δχ-tensor parameters from assigned PCS values and the available 3D structure; and (iii) I incorporated PCS-based restraints into the protein structure prediction software CS-ROSETTA and demonstrated that this combination (PCS-ROSETTA) presents a significant improvement for de novo structure determination. The three projects serve different purposes at different stages of protein NMR studies. They could be combined in the following manner: Starting from assigned backbone PCSs, PCS-Rosetta could be used to determine the 3D structure of the protein. Possum can then be used to automatically assign the NMR resonances of the methyl groups using PCSs. Finally, Numbat can be used to fit improved Δχ-tensors to all the PCS data, analyze the quality of the Δχ-tensors and identify possible wrong assignments. Iterative repetition of this protocol would give a 3D structural model of the protein with a minimum of data. Alternatively, the Δχ-tensor parameters and PCSs could be used as input for a traditional software package such as Xplor-NIH to compute a 3D structure of the protein.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Novos protótipos de fármacos estão constantemente a ser sintetizados e muitas estruturas cristalinas de outros ainda são desconhecidas. Tão importante quanto o planejamento e síntese de novos fármacos é a sua caracterização estrutural, uma vez que a sua estrutura (conformação) pode estar diretamente relacionada com a ação terapêutica. O uso da difração de raios X tem sido muito importante na determinação estrutural dos novos compostos sintetizados. Neste trabalho foi feita a determinação da estrutura de LASSBio-1755 com os dados de difração de raios X por policristais. Este composto foi sintetizado no Laboratório de Avaliação e Síntese de Substâncias Bioativas (LASSBio) da Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro. O composto LASSBio-1755 pertence a uma nova série de compostos cicloalquil-N-acilidrazônicos planejados para o desenvolvimento de protótipos com atividades antinociceptiva e anti-inflamatórios. Este composto cristalizou-se num sistema triclínico com grupo espacial (P ), com parâmetros de cela unitária a = 4,86647(9) Å, b = 9,3108(2) Å, c = 11,3402(2) Å, α = 106,649(1), β = 101,958(1), γ = 82,629(2) e V = 480,30(2) Å3. A estrutura cristalina de LASSBio-1755 consiste em duas fórmulas unitárias por cela unitária (Z = 2), acomodando uma molécula na unidade assimétrica (Z' = 1). O Método de Rietveld foi utilizado para refinar a estrutura cristalina e o indicador de qualidade do ajuste, bem como os fatores R foram, respectivamente: χ2 = 1,131, RBragg = 0,856%, Rwp =4,174% e o Rexp= 3,692%. As técnicas de calorimetria exploratória diferencial, termogravimetria e espectroscopia no infravermelho por transformada de Fourier também foram utilizadas para análise do composto LASSBio-1755 e os seus resultados corroboraram com os obtidos através da técnica de difração de raios X por policristais. / New drug prototypes are constantly being synthesized and many others crystal structures are still unknown. As important as the design and synthesis of new drugs is their structural characterization, since the structure conformation) can be directly related to the therapeutic action. The use of X-ray diffraction has been very important in the structural determination of new synthesized compounds. In this work we determined the crystal structure of LASSBio-1755 with X-ray powder diffraction data. This compound was synthesized in the Laboratory of Evaluation and Synthesis of Bioactive Substances (LASSBio) of the Federal University do Rio de Janeiro. The compound LASSBio-1755 belongs to a new class of cycloalkyl-N-acylhydrazonic compounds planned for the development of derivatives with antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activities. This compound crystallized in a triclinic system (P ), with unit cell parameters a = 4,86647(9) Å, b = 9,3108(2) Å, c = 11,3402(2) Å, α = 106,649(1), β = 101,958(1), γ = 82,629(2) and V = 480,30(2) Å3. The crystal structure of LASSBio-1755 consists of two formula units per unit cell (Z = 2), thus accommodating one molecule in the asymmetric unit (Z' = 1). The Rietveld method was used to refine the crystal structure and the goodness-of-fit indicator as well as Rfactors were χ2 = 1.131, RBragg = 0,856%, Rwp = 4,174% and Rexp= 3,692%. Differential scanning calorimetry, thermogravimetric analysis and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy techniques were also used to analyze the compound LASSBio-1755 and their results corroborate those obtained through the technique of X-ray diffraction by polycrystals.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Novos protótipos de fármacos estão constantemente a ser sintetizados e muitas estruturas cristalinas de outros ainda são desconhecidas. Tão importante quanto o planejamento e síntese de novos fármacos é a sua caracterização estrutural, uma vez que a sua estrutura (conformação) pode estar diretamente relacionada com a ação terapêutica. O uso da difração de raios X tem sido muito importante na determinação estrutural dos novos compostos sintetizados. Neste trabalho foi feita a determinação da estrutura de LASSBio-1755 com os dados de difração de raios X por policristais. Este composto foi sintetizado no Laboratório de Avaliação e Síntese de Substâncias Bioativas (LASSBio) da Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro. O composto LASSBio-1755 pertence a uma nova série de compostos cicloalquil-N-acilidrazônicos planejados para o desenvolvimento de protótipos com atividades antinociceptiva e anti-inflamatórios. Este composto cristalizou-se num sistema triclínico com grupo espacial (P ), com parâmetros de cela unitária a = 4,86647(9) Å, b = 9,3108(2) Å, c = 11,3402(2) Å, α = 106,649(1), β = 101,958(1), γ = 82,629(2) e V = 480,30(2) Å3. A estrutura cristalina de LASSBio-1755 consiste em duas fórmulas unitárias por cela unitária (Z = 2), acomodando uma molécula na unidade assimétrica (Z' = 1). O Método de Rietveld foi utilizado para refinar a estrutura cristalina e o indicador de qualidade do ajuste, bem como os fatores R foram, respectivamente: χ2 = 1,131, RBragg = 0,856%, Rwp =4,174% e o Rexp= 3,692%. As técnicas de calorimetria exploratória diferencial, termogravimetria e espectroscopia no infravermelho por transformada de Fourier também foram utilizadas para análise do composto LASSBio-1755 e os seus resultados corroboraram com os obtidos através da técnica de difração de raios X por policristais. / New drug prototypes are constantly being synthesized and many others crystal structures are still unknown. As important as the design and synthesis of new drugs is their structural characterization, since the structure conformation) can be directly related to the therapeutic action. The use of X-ray diffraction has been very important in the structural determination of new synthesized compounds. In this work we determined the crystal structure of LASSBio-1755 with X-ray powder diffraction data. This compound was synthesized in the Laboratory of Evaluation and Synthesis of Bioactive Substances (LASSBio) of the Federal University do Rio de Janeiro. The compound LASSBio-1755 belongs to a new class of cycloalkyl-N-acylhydrazonic compounds planned for the development of derivatives with antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activities. This compound crystallized in a triclinic system (P ), with unit cell parameters a = 4,86647(9) Å, b = 9,3108(2) Å, c = 11,3402(2) Å, α = 106,649(1), β = 101,958(1), γ = 82,629(2) and V = 480,30(2) Å3. The crystal structure of LASSBio-1755 consists of two formula units per unit cell (Z = 2), thus accommodating one molecule in the asymmetric unit (Z' = 1). The Rietveld method was used to refine the crystal structure and the goodness-of-fit indicator as well as Rfactors were χ2 = 1.131, RBragg = 0,856%, Rwp = 4,174% and Rexp= 3,692%. Differential scanning calorimetry, thermogravimetric analysis and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy techniques were also used to analyze the compound LASSBio-1755 and their results corroborate those obtained through the technique of X-ray diffraction by polycrystals.

No Capítulo 1, os fundamentos da cristalografia de raios X estão sucintamente descritos. No Capítulo 2, seis estruturas de pequenas moléculas contendo átomos pesados em sua constituição foram determinadas. As quais são resumidas a seguir: 1)[Ru2Cl5(CO)(PPh3)3], Mr = 1194,21, cristaliza-se no sistema monoclínico, grupo espacial P21/c com a =14,618(4)&#197, b=18,043(7)&#197, c=20,31(3)&#197; &#946=99,81(5)&#176; V=5277(8)&#1973; Z=4; Dcalç =1,503g/cm-3; &#955(MoK&#945) = 0,71073&#197; &#956 = 0,954 mm-1; F(000) = 2404; R=0,538 para 9281 reflexões independentes e 487 parâmetros refinados. Os átomos de Ru estão ligados em ponte através de três ânions Cl. Um átomo de Ru é coordenado a dois outros átomos de Cl e a um ligante PPh3, o outro átomo de Ru está coordenado a dois ligantes PPh3 e a uma molécula de CO. 2)[RuCl3(dppb)H2O], Mr = 651,88, cristaliza-se no sistema ortorrômbico, grupo espacial Pbca; com a=14,932(1) &#197, b=18,133 (3)&#197, c=20,59(3)&#197; V=5576,0(1)&#1973; Z=8; Dcalc =1,553g/cm-3; &#955(MoK&#945) = 0,71073&#197; &#956 = 0,985 mm-1; F(000)=2648; R=0,0461 para 4892 reflexões independentes e 316 parâmetros refinados. O complexo é hexacoordenado. Os átomos P encontram-se em posição cis, um em relação ao outro, formando um complexo próximo de uma estrutura octaédrica. Esta estrutura apresentou interação intermolecular Cl...H. A distância entre o H de uma molécula e o Cl é de 2,48(2)&#197. 3) FeC19H1919N19S19], Mr=377,28, cristaliza-se no sistema monoclínico, grupo espacial P21/n; com a=11,715(2)&#197, b=7,830(2)&#197, c=18,728(3)&#197; &#946=91,570(1)&#176; V=1717,1(6)&#1973; Z=4; Dcalc =1,459g/cm-3; &#955(MoK&#945) = 0,71073&#197; &#956 = 1,004 mm-1; F(000)=784; R=0,0453 para 3018 reflexões independentes e 218 parâmetros refinados. O complexo é formado por um átomo de ferro decacoordenado em uma extremidade e na outra existe um anel aromático, indicando que os radicais genéricos mostrados na Seção (2.5) são R\'=C\'H IND. 3\', X=S1 e R\"=fenil. 4)[pyH][RuCl4(dmso)(py)].(CH2Cl2)1/2, Mr=562,11 cristaliza-se no sistema triclínico, grupo espacial P1; com a= 7,7608(1)&#197, b=85451(1)&#197, c=15,095(5)&#197; &#945=88,27(2)&#186; &#946=79,33(2)&#186; &#947,=88,77(1)&#186; V=983,2(4)&#1973; Z=2; Dcalc=1,899gcm-3; &#955(CuK&#945)=1,54184 &#197; &#956=15,001 mm-1; F(000)=556; R=0,0886 para 2909 reflexões independentes e 204 parâmetros refinados. O Ru está octaedricamente coordenado a quatro átomos Cl coplanares, a um N do anel de uma piridina e ao dmso, em posição trans entre si. Um outro grupo piridina protonado, que forma o cátion da estrutura, completa a estrutura. 5)[RuCl2(CO)2(AsPh3)2, Mr =840,43, cristaliza-se no sistema monoclínico, grupo espacial P21/n; com a=710,520(4)&#197, b=25,823(5)&#197, c=12,780(2)&#197; &#946=100,7401(1)&#176; V=3411,0(1)&#1973; Z=4; Dcalc =1,637gcm-3; &#955(CuK&#945)=1,54184 &#197; &#956=7,576 mm-1; F(000)=1672; R=0,0739 para 4284 reflexões independentes e 406 parâmetros refinados. O átomo de Ru está ligado a dois átomos de Cl e a duas moléculas CO, que formam aproximadamente um plano entre si. Os CO\'s estão em posição trans em relação aos Cl\'s. O átomo de Ru também apresenta coordenação com duas PPh3. 6)[Ru2ClBr4(CO)(AsPh3).CH2Cl2)<, Mr=154,88 cristaliza-se no sistema monoclínico, grupo espacial P21/c; com a=14,766(2)&#197, b=18,519(2)&#197, c=20,730(4)&#197; &#946=100,085(1)&#176; V=5581,2(1)&#1973; Dcalc =1,839gcm-3; &#955(CuK&#945)=1,54184 &#197; &#956=10,947mm-1; F (000)=3004; R=0,0955 para 5738 reflexões independentes e 493 parâmetros refinados. O complexo é formado por dois átomos de Ru em ponte através de três ânions Br. Um átomo de Ru é também coordenado a um átomo Br, a um Cl e a um ligante trifenilfosfina. O outro átomo de Ru está ligado a duas trifenilarsinas e a uma molécula de monóxido de carbono. No capítulo 3, apresentam-se as conclusões e planos futuros / In Chapter 1, the basic principles of X-ray crystallography that have been used in this work are briefly described. In Chapter 2, six small molecule structures with heavy atoms are presented. They are summarized as follows: 1)[Ru2Cl5(CO)(PPh3)3], Mr = 1194,21, crystallizes in the monoclinic system, space group P21/c com a =14,618(4)&#197, b=18,043(7)&#197, c=20,31(3)&#197; &#946=99,81(5)&#176; V=5277(8)&#1973; Z=4; Dcalc =1,503g/cm-3; &#955(MoK&#945) = 0,71073&#197; &#956 = 0,954 mm-1; F(000) = 2404; R=0,538 for 9281 independent reflections and 487 refined parameters. This triply chloro-bridged binuclear complex is formed by two Ru atoms bridged through three chloride anions. One Ru atom is further coordinated to two non-bridging Cl atoms and a triphenylphosphine ligand, whereas the other is bonded to two PPh3 ligands and to a carbon monoxide molecule. 2) 3(dppb)H2O], Mr = 651,88, crystallizes in the orthorhombic system, space group Pbca; a=14,932(1) &#197, b=18,133 (3)&#197, c=20,59(3)&#197; V=5576,0(1)&#1973; Z=8; Dcalc =1,553g/cm-3; &#955(MoK&#945) = 0,71073&#197; &#956 = 0,985 mm-1; F(000)=2648; R=0,0461 for 4892 independent reflections and 316 refined parameters. The complex is hexacoordinated. The P atoms are in cis position to each other, forming a octhaedrical structure. This structure shows an intermolecular interaction between one Cl atom from one complex and a water hydrogen of a neighboring complex in the lattice, with Cl...H distance of 2,48(2)A. 3)[FeC19H1919N19S19], Mr=377,28, crystallizes in the monoclinic system, space group P21/n; a=11,715(2)&#197, b=7,830(2)&#197, c=18,728(3)&#197; &#946=91,570(1)&#176; V=1717,1(6)&#1973; Z=4; Dcalc =1,459g/cm-3; &#955(MoK&#945) = 0,71073&#197; &#956 = 1,004 mm-1; F(000)=784; R=0,0453 for 3018 indepen dent reflections and 218 refined parameters. This complex shows a decacoordinated Fe atom in one end of the molecule and an aromatic ring in the other, showing that the gereric radicals in Section (2.5) are R\'= CH3, X=Sl and R\" =phenyl. 4)[pyH][RuCl4(dmso)(py)].(CH2Cl2)1/2, Mr=562,11, crystallizes in the triclinic system, space group P1; a= 7,7608(1)&#197, b=85451(1)&#197, c=15,095(5)&#197; &#945=88,27(2)&#186; &#946=79,33(2)&#186; &#947,=88,77(1)&#186; V=983,2(4)&#1973; Z=2; Dcalç=1,899gcm-3; &#955(CuK&#945)=1,54184 &#197; &#956=15,001 mm-1; F(000)=556; R=0,0886 for 2909 independent reflections and 204 refined parameters. The Ru ion is octahedrally coordinated to four co-planar chloride atoms and to the nitrogen of the pyridine ring, which are trans to each other. Another protonated pyridine group, which forms the counter-cation complete the crystal struet ure. 5)[RuCl2(CO)2(AsPh3)2, Mr =840,43, crystalizes in the monoclinic system, space group P21/n; a=710,520(4)&#197, b=25,823(5)&#197, c=12,780(2)&#197; &#946=100,7401(1)&#176; V=3411,0(1)&#1973; Z=4; Dcalc =1,637gcm-3; &#955(CuK&#945)=1,54184 &#197; &#956=7,576 mm-1; F(000)=1672; R=0,0739 for 4284 independent reflections and 406 refined parameters. This complex shows a Ru atom bonded to two Cl atoms and to two CO molecules, which aproximatelly form a plane between then. The CO\'s are trans to the chlorides and the Ru further presents a coordination to two PPh3. 6) [Ru2ClBr4(CO)(AsPh3).CH2Cl2)<, Mr=154,88, crystallizes in the monoclinic system, space group P21/c; com a=14,766(2)&#197, b=18,519(2)&#197, c=20,730(4)&#197; &#946=100,085(1)&#176; V=5581,2(1)&#1973; Dcalc =1,839gcm-3; &#955(CuK&#945)=1,54184 &#197; &#956=10,947mm-1; F (000)=3004; R=0,0955 for 5738 independent reflections and 493 refined parameters. This complex is formed by two Ru atoms bridged by three Br anions. One Ru atom is further coordenated to a Br atom, to a CI atom and to a triphenylphosphine ligand, whereas the other is bonded to two AsPh3 and to a carbon monoxide molecule. In chapter 3, conclusions and future plans are given.

Strukturbestämning av proteiner är viktigt för att kunna förstå deras funktion och en snabbt utvecklande metod inom fältet är kryoelektronmikroskopi. Storleksbegränsningar förhindrar en bredare applikation av metoden eftersom små proteiner har för låg signal i förhållande till bakgrund för att kunna visualiseras som enstaka partiklar i elektronmiksoskopibilder. Hypotesen för projektet är att det är möjligt att avbilda väldigt små proteiner och kringgå den konventionella storleksbegränsningen genom att använda ett bärarprotein ((Putrescine Aminotransferase; YgjG) som kopplas till en affibody (Zwt) genom “helical fusion” och sedan binda ett litet målprotein till denna större struktur. Komplexet ska ge en tillräcklig storlek, symmetri och rigiditet för en lyckad elektronmikroskopi av bärare tillsammans med det lilla icke kovalent bundna målproteinet. För att karaktärisera den föreslagna bäraren, genomförs stabilitetstester genom CD, verifiering av inbindning av målproteinet i SPR, renhetsundersökning med SEC och slutligen kryoelektronmikroskopi för att testa konceptet. Det lilla målproteinet som kommer att avbildas i konceptstudien är en annan affibody (Z963), som i så fall skulle vara det minsta proteinet som någonsin har lösts med kryogenelektronmikroskopi. Resultaten visar att den undersökta tetramera-bäraren är väldigt stabil (Tm~ 85 oC) och kan tolerera en affibody-fusion med bibehållen bindning av multipla säten. Proteinet kan uttryckas rekombinant och renas till högt utbyte och bildar tetramerer även med fuserad affibody. De slutgiltiga resultaten från den kryoelektronmikroskopiska analysen inväntas fortfarande, men lovande griddar har skapats och en partikelselektion har gett klara 2-D klasser som också framhäver att det lilla målproteinet har bundit. Sammanfattningsvis har biofysikalisk karaktärisering indikerat att YgjG är en lovande bas för ett “imaging scaffold” och att preliminära enstaka-partikel kryoelektronmikroskopi analyser visar att den föreslagna strategin att undersöka små målproteiner är möjlig. / Determining structures of proteins is important to understand protein functions, and a rapidly evolving technique in this field is cryogen electron microscopy. However, size limitations are preventing wider applications of the technique because small proteins have poor signal to noise ratios and are not possible to distinguish in single-particle images. The hypothesis of this project is that it is possible to image very small proteins, bypassing the conventional size limitations of single-particle cryo-EM, by utilizing a carrier protein-scaffold (Putrescine Aminotransferase; YgjG) connected through helical fusion to an affibody (Zwt) that can bind to a small protein of interest. The complex provides a sufficient size, symmetry, and rigidity for successful electron microscopy also of the non-covalently bound small protein of interest. To characterise the proposed scaffold, thermal stability through CD, binding of target protein in SPR, purity through SEC and experiments towards proof-of-concept in cryo-EM will be performed. The small protein of interest to be imaged in the proof-of-concept setup is another affibody, called Z963, that would be the smallest protein ever solved with cryo-EM. The results show that the investigated tetrameric protein scaffold is a highly stable protein (Tm~85oC) that can tolerate affibody fusion with retained binding function of multiple sites. The protein can be recombinantly expressed and purified in high yield and forms tetramers also when fused to affibody. The cryo-EM results are still pending, but promising grids have been created and in an initial particle selection clear 2-D classes that also reveal the small bound protein of interest have been generated. To conclude, biophysical characterization indicates that YgjG is a promising base structure for an imaging scaffold and preliminary single-particle cryo-EM analyses show that the proposed strategy to investigate structures of small proteins of interest is feasible.