Child labour is closely associated with poverty. However, the direction of causality is an empirical question. There is need to control for potential endogeneity in order to be able to adequately estimate the factors that determine child labour. This study proposed a model of an agricultural household to explain the factors that affect the household's decision to involve their children in child labour and the type of influence each factor has on the household. These factors include household resources, child characteristics, community characteristics, school availability, etc. The data was analysed using both Tobit and Logit models. The Tobit model was used to find the relationship between the factors and duration of child work while the Logit model was used for the participation of the child in farm work. The outcome of the analysis showed that among agricultural households in Ethiopia, child labour is a normal good increasing with income. However, the impact on the male child was different from that of the female child, suggesting that gender bias with respect to child labour might exist in Ethiopia. The male child is made to participate more in farm work than the female child, though the females responded more to household land holding (size). This can be attributed to the need for the household decision maker to substitute household chores performed by the female child for farm work. The substitution effect of increase in income on household decision on child farm work is higher than the income effect, irrespective of the gender of the child, although the effect was significant for the male child but not significant for the female child. Also, school availability is a very important factor for both the male and the female child. The impact of household size in this analysis suggests the presence of division of labour, and the significance of the mother's education on the female child's response suggests that the effect of cultural belief system changes with the mother's education. / Dissertation (MSc (Agric))--University of Pretoria, 2016. / Agricultural Economics, Extension and Rural Development / MSc (Agric) / Unrestricted

The presented thesis has closely examined the discussion on policy assignments that are restricted on an open macroeconomic model; very little reference has focused on a closed macroeconomic model. As we know, Ramirez (1986) is the first person who has applied policy assignment to a closed macroeconomic model. But Chang and Lai have clearly proved that Ramirez's model is not appropriate for policy assignment, and a way to redeem the problem is to introduce policy instrument to aggregate supply side. Also, this thesis is going to focus on, instead of introduced the policy instrument to aggregate supply side, use system endogenous on aggregate supply function. Could this kind of correction redeem the flaws made by Ramirez? Hence, this thesis would apply the reality intertemporal substitution effect of labor to subsume an aggregate supply side, then discuss the relationship on policy assignment that is between policy instrument and policy target that would derive the conclusion as below: When a model does not include the intertemporal substitution effect of labor, it degrades to a Ramirez's model (1986) and cannot be used for policy assignment. On the other hand, a model including intertemporal substitution effect of labor remedies the flaws in Ramirez's model (1986) and can be used for appropriate policy assignment assuming that government spending is in complement with private spending.

This study uses logistic regression to estimate the probability of choosing the brand-name drug despite the presence of cheaper generics given patient and drug characteristics in the Czech pharmaceutical market in the period 2009-2013. Results of the analysis may help guide policies to decrease pharmaceutical costs. In order to motivate people who are more likely to choose the original version of drug, policy makers may impose higher copayments and lower subsidies on the original drugs which they use. Additionally, two supplementary analyses were applied to sub-sectors of the pharmaceutical market: antihypertensive drugs and antibiotics. Fixed effects logistic regression is employed to test the robustness of the results.

CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeiÃoamento de Pessoal de NÃvel Superior / Este trabalho investigou a relaÃÃo entre estrutura de propriedade e qualidade da governanÃa corporativa nas maiores companhias de capital aberto do Brasil. A literatura indica que os acionistas buscam maiores participaÃÃes societÃrias para aumentar o monitoramento sobre a gestÃo e/ou para auferir benefÃcios privados do controle. Os diferentes interesses dos acionistas, dependendo de suas participaÃÃes acionÃrias e de sua natureza, podem afetar a qualidade da governanÃa das companhias, sugerindo-se a hipÃtese de que a estrutura de propriedade esteja afetando o nÃvel de adoÃÃo das companhias de capital aberto do Brasil Ãs prÃticas voluntÃrias de governanÃa corporativa, segundo o efeito expropriaÃÃo e o efeito substituiÃÃo. A amostra compreendeu 85 das 100 maiores companhias listadas na BM&FBovespa no perÃodo entre 2010 e 2013. A qualidade da governanÃa foi mensurada por meio de um Ãndice composto por 28 prÃticas recomendadas nos principais cÃdigos de boas prÃticas de governanÃa corporativa do Brasil â Ãndice de Qualidade da GovernanÃa Corporativa (IQGC). A estrutura de propriedade foi analisada a partir da concentraÃÃo acionÃria, da natureza dos principais acionistas e de caracterÃsticas do controle societÃrio. A relaÃÃo entre as variÃveis de estrutura de propriedade e o IQGC foi testada por meio de anÃlises de regressÃo, utilizando-se trÃs modelagens: mÃnimos quadrados ordinÃrios, mÃnimos quadrados generalizados e mÃtodo generalizado de momentos sistÃmico. As estimaÃÃes revelaram que a concentraÃÃo de propriedade e de controle afeta negativamente o IQGC, sobretudo em elevados Ãndices de concentraÃÃo. Quanto à natureza dos principais acionistas, o IQGC à menor quando hà uma maior participaÃÃo de outra empresa ou de pessoas fÃsicas no controle das companhias, em comparaÃÃo com os demais tipos de acionistas. A anÃlise do controle societÃrio corrobora com as anÃlises anteriores, indicando que direitos de voto e de fluxo de caixa dos controladores e o controle exercido por outra empresa e por famÃlias estÃo relacionados ao menor IQGC. Ademais, o controle disperso e a ausÃncia de um acionista majoritÃrio estÃo associados à melhora da qualidade da governanÃa corporativa, enquanto a separaÃÃo entre direitos de voto e de fluxo de caixa dos principais acionistas e do acionista controlador nÃo afetam o IQGC. Estes resultados sugerem que a qualidade da governanÃa corporativa das maiores empresas de capital aberto no Brasil depende de sua estrutura de propriedade. A relaÃÃo negativa da concentraÃÃo acionÃria e da presenÃa de um acionista controlador com IQGC à mais compatÃvel com o efeito substituiÃÃo, indicando que os acionistas controladores podem estar usando a seu poder sobre a gestÃo como um substituto para outras prÃticas voluntÃrias de governanÃa corporativa, embora nÃo se possa excluir uma possÃvel expropriaÃÃo. A relaÃÃo negativa entre o IQGC e o controle exercido por grupos empresariais e famÃlias pode ser reflexo dos interesses estratÃgicos desses acionistas, sugerindo o efeito expropriaÃÃo, ou apenas uma consequÃncia do efeito substituiÃÃo, por causa de seu maior poder de controle. / This study investigated the relationship between ownership structure and corporate governance quality in the largest public companies in Brazil. The literature indicates that shareholders pursue higher stakes to increase monitoring on the management and/or obtaining private benefits of control. The different interests of shareholders, depending on their shareholdingsâ position and their nature can affect the governance quality of companies, suggesting the hypothesis that the ownership structure is affecting the level of adoption of voluntary corporate governance practices by public companies from Brazil, according to the purpose of the expropriation effect and the substitution effect. The sample included 85 of the 100 largest companies listed on the BM&FBovespa in the period between 2010 and 2013. We measured he corporate governance quality by an index composed of 28 recommended practices on the main codes of good corporate governance practices in Brazil â Ãndice de Qualidade da GovernanÃa Corporativa (IQGC). We analyzed the ownership structure from ownership concentration, nature of the principal shareholders and corporate control characteristics. The relationship between the variables of ownership structure and the IQGC was tested via regression analyzes, using three econometric modeling: ordinary least squares, generalized least squares and generalized method of moments systemic. The estimates revealed that the concentration of ownership and control affect negatively the IQGC, especially in high levels of concentration. About the nature of principal shareholders, the IQGC is lower when there is a higher share of another company or persons in control of the companies, compared with other types of shareholders. The analysis of the shareholding control corroborates with previous analyzes, indicating that the voting and cash flow rights of controller shareholders and the control exercised by another company or a family are related with less IQGC. Moreover, the dispersed ownership and the absence of a majority shareholder are associated with increasing the corporate governance quality, while the separation between voting rights and cash flow rights of both main and controller shareholders do not affects the IQGC. These results suggest that corporate governance quality of the largest public companies in Brazil depends of their ownership structure. The negative relationship between ownership concentration and the presence of a controlling shareholder with IQGC is more compatible with the substitution effect, indicating that controlling shareholders may be using his power over the management as a substitute for other voluntary practices of corporate governance, although one cannot exclude a possible expropriation. The negative relationship between the IQGC and the control exerted by corporate groups and families may be reflective of the strategic interests of these shareholders, suggesting the effect of expropriation, or just a consequence of the effect substitution because their most control power.

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No description available.

Bakgrund och problemdiskussion: Familjeföretag är oftast i behov inom olika områden av ett externt stöd som är oberoende från familjen och företaget. Revisorer och externa styrelseledamöter är två exempel som kan vara mycket värdefulla aktörer att ha i familjeföretag. Tidigare forskning som är relaterad till ämnet har undersökt antingen endast rollerna för externa styrelseledamöter inom familjeföretag eller bara revisorns roller i familjeföretag. Ingen tidigare forskning har dock diskuterat båda aktörernas roller tillsammans och undersökt om det finns en substitutions- eller komplementeffekt mellan de i små medelstora familjeföretag. Detta ger oss motivationen att bidra till forskning, genom att öka förståelse kring både aktörernas fyra roller inom familjeföretag och undersöka effekterna som uppstår mellan de.  Syfte: Syftet med denna uppsats är att öka förståelsen för de rollerna som revisorer och externa styrelseledamöter har i ett familjeföretag, för att därmed utveckla kunskap om huruvida revisor kan substituera vissa roller som en extern styrelseledamot kan inneha, eller om både parter kompletterar varandra med sina roller i familjeföretag.   Metod: Deduktiv forskningsansats har använts, där uppsatsens teoretiska modell byggts upp utifrån befintliga teorier och forskning kring ämnet. En kvalitativ studie genomförts genom semistrukturerade intervjuer med ägare/VD i små och medelstora familjeföretag, för att få en förståelse för deras perspektiv på revisorns och externa styrelseledamöters roller samt eventuella effekter i familjeföretag.  Resultat och slutsats: Studien har kunnat påvisa att det förekommer en substitutions- och komplementeffekt mellan de olika aktörerna. Rollerna och effekterna varierade mellan olika familjeföretag. Detta är till följd av att familjeföretagen hade olika omständigheter och förväntningar på rollerna som skiljer sig åt i respektive familjeföretag. Dessa skillnader kunde vi identifiera genom olika faktorer som lyfts fram. / Background and problem discussion: Family businesses are usually in need in various areas of external support that is independent from the family and the company. Auditors and external board members are two examples that can be very valuable actors to have in family businesses. Previous research related to the topic has examined either only the roles of outside directors in family firms or only the roles of the auditor in family firms. However, no previous research has discussed the roles of both actors together and investigated whether there is a substitution or complementarity effect between them in small medium-sized family businesses. This gives us the motivation to contribute to research, by increasing understanding around both the actors' four roles within family businesses and investigating the effects that arise between them.  Purpose: The purpose of this essay is to increase understanding of the roles that auditors and external board members have in a family business, to thereby develop knowledge about whether the auditor can substitute certain roles that an external board member can hold, or whether both parties complement each other with their roles in family businesses.  Method: A deductive research approach has been used, where the essay's theoretical model has been built up based on existing theories and research on the subject. A qualitative study was conducted through semi-structured interviews with owners/CEOs in small and medium-sized family businesses, to gain an understanding of their perspective on the roles of the auditor and external board members as well as possible effects in family businesses.  Results and conclusion: The study has been able to demonstrate that there is a substitution and complementation effect between the various actors. The roles and effects varied between different family businesses. This is because the family businesses had different circumstances and expectations of the roles that differ in each family business. We were able to identify these differences through several different factors that were highlighted.

Submitted by Ilaria Masiero (masiero85@gmail.com) on 2017-05-25T11:35:21Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Ilaria Masiero-Tese.pdf: 954388 bytes, checksum: 5671375e6bcdb3db1ae05acd4498eefc (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Suzinei Teles Garcia Garcia (suzinei.garcia@fgv.br) on 2017-05-25T12:15:33Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 Ilaria Masiero-Tese.pdf: 954388 bytes, checksum: 5671375e6bcdb3db1ae05acd4498eefc (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-05-25T12:47:33Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Ilaria Masiero-Tese.pdf: 954388 bytes, checksum: 5671375e6bcdb3db1ae05acd4498eefc (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-05-19 / Prevention is commonly recognized as the best way to go in the fight against delinquency. Yet, working out sound policies is an extremely challenging task. The first two essays in this thesis contribute to the pursuit of innovative tools by highlighting the crime-preventing potential of technologies and occupations that make people willingly alter their time allocation choices. The rationale behind this is simple: offenses will be averted if individuals choose to engage in less crime-conducive activities substituting time away from more crime-conducive activities. This mechanism is known in the literature as “voluntary incapacitation”. In particular, the first paper analyzes the impact of Internet diffusion on crime in the US. Using a panel of state level yearly data and adopting an instrumental variable approach, I find a negative and significant relationship between Internet penetration and total and property crimes. Based on my theoretical framework, I interpret this outcome as reflecting voluntary incapacitation: time spent online crowds out alternative activities that would more likely lead to crime. The second essay investigates the entertainment-crime relationship by analyzing how criminal activity behaved in the city of São Paulo during the 2014 FIFA World Cup. Outcomes show that crime is significantly lower during matches, especially those with the highest remote viewership rates. Further tests suggest that these findings reflect the voluntary incapacitation effect, whereby the potential for criminal interaction (and thus crime) drops as people are busy watching the games. The main policy-relevant conclusion from the first two essays in this thesis is that providing access to technologies (such as the Internet) and entertainment activities (such as sporting events) may trigger a crime-preventive effect via voluntary incapacitation. The third paper also relates to crime prevention by tackling a crucial issue in the economics of crime literature – the empirical assessment of the deterrent role of policing. The difficulty arises from the fact that crime and police presence are simultaneously determined, causing a problem of reverse causality. I address the issue by considering the natural experiment represented by the creation of a special police unit to intensify surveillance around a few tournament-related locations in the city of São Paulo during the 2014 FIFA World Cup. I take into account that the championship may impact crime in other ways than just through increased policing, namely via fan concentration and voluntary incapacitation. In order to disentangle the specific effect of police on crime, I exploit the fact that the World Cup affected different areas of the city through different channels and at different times. Difference-in-differences estimates reveal that increased police presence leads to a significant reduction in criminal activity. The predicted elasticity of crime to police presence is remarkably close to estimates from previous studies. / A prevenção é reconhecidamente o melhor caminho para o combate ao crime. Contudo, elaborar políticas preventivas é um grande desafio. Os primeiros dois ensaios dessa tese contribuem para a busca de ferramentas inovadoras neste âmbito ao explorar o papel de prevenção ao crime de tecnologias e formas de entretenimento que fazem as pessoas alterarem voluntariamente suas escolhas de alocação do tempo. O racional é simples: delitos podem ser evitados se as pessoas optarem por gastar seu tempo em atividades menos propícias à ocorrência de crimes tirando tempo de atividades mais propícias à ocorrência de crimes. Este mecanismo é conhecido na literatura como “voluntary incapacitation”. O primeiro ensaio analiza o impacto da difusão da Internet sobre delitos nos EUA. Usando variáveis instrumentais em um contexto de painel por ano e estado, eu encontro uma relação negativa e significante entre penetração da Internet e crime total e crime contra a propriedade. Baseado no arcabouço teórico, eu interpreto este resultado como voluntary incapacitation: o tempo gasto online reduz o tempo gasto em atividades alternativas que mais provavelmente levariam a delitos. O segundo artigo investiga a ligação entre entretenimento e crime ao analizar a atividade criminosa na cidade de São Paulo durante a Copa do Mundo de 2014. Os resultados mostram que esta é significativamente menor durante os jogos, especialmente aqueles com as maiores taxas de audiência remota. Testes adicionais sugerem que estes resultados refletem o mecanismo de voluntary incapacitation uma vez que a possibilidade de interação entre potenciais vítimas e criminosos diminui enquanto as pessoas assistem os jogos. A maior contribuição para políticas públicas desses estudos é a conclusão que prover acesso a tecnologias (como a Internet) e atividades de entretenimento (como eventos esportivos) pode ajudar no combate ao crime através do efeito de voluntary incapacitation. O terceiro ensaio também relaciona à prevenção ao crime e aborda um desafio da literatura, que é a quantificação empírica do efeito de dissuasão da polícia. A dificuldade nasce do fato de que presença policial e crime são determinados simultaneamente, causando um problema de endogeneidade. Eu abordo o assunto ao considerar o experimento natural representado pela criação de uma unidade especial de polícia para o monitoramento de algumas áreas específicas da cidade de São Paulo durante a Copa do Mundo de 2014. Eu levo em consideração que o campeonato deve influenciar o crime através de vários canais (concentração de torcedores e voluntary incapacitation), e não só por meio do aumento do efetivo policial. Para separar o efeito específico da polícia sobre crime, eu uso o fato de que a Copa do Mundo impactou diferentes áreas da cidade em momentos diferentes e através de diferentes canais. Os resultados mostram que o aumento na presença da polícia leva a uma redução significativa da atividade criminosa. A elasticidade do crime à polícia estimada é muito próxima àquela calculada em outros estudos.

Samhället efterfrågar idag i allt högre grad miljövänlig och hållbar byggnation. Ett sätt möta dessa nya krav på miljövänlig byggnation är att använda mer trä då detta minskar koldioxidutsläpp genom substitutionseffekten. Syftet att undersöka huruvida traditionella fogningstekniker som helt utförs i trä kan ersätta samtida fogar i framtida byggnation. Målet är att visa att detta är möjligt ur hållfasthetssynpunkt. Undersökningen kommer att begränsas till att undersöka en pelar-balk-anslutning där den traditionella fogen representeras av tre olika varianter tapp i tapphålsfog och den samtida av balksko. Fogarna undersöks beräkningsmässigt samt genom försök där belastningsfallet ämnar ge en hög tvärkraft. Resultaten pekar på att det är möjligt att introducera den undersökta traditionella träfogningstekniken vid samtida byggnation. / Societies demand for environmentally friendly and sustainable construction is ever increasing. One way to meet these new demands on environmentally friendly construction is to use more wood which decreases carbon emissions through the substitution effect. This report aims to research whether traditional joinery techniques entirely executed in wood can replace contemporary joinery techniques in future construction. The goal is to show whether this is possible from a strength standpoint. The research will be limited in that it will strictly seek to study a pillar-beamconnection where the traditional joint researched will be three varying mortise and tenon joints and the contemporary joint is a joist hanger. The joints will be analyzed with calculation and experimentation where the load case aims to produce mainly shear in the joint. The results point towards it being possible to introduce this traditional joint in contemporary construction.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-07-29T14:49:10Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Heloisio_Caetano.pdf: 4628443 bytes, checksum: b488772923cf9872b1b42391f8d89610 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011-08-08 / The analyses of the dynamics of the crops composition in the State of Goiás was first started by Yokoyama (1988). Here, is made a continuity of this work and methodology enlargement elements like maps and graphics to better scrutinize the phenomenon throw the use of shift-share rates. Further socio economic inferences are based in agricultural frontier´s theory. The mathematical methods and uses, of the shift-share rates, are discussed. Using this model, the area effects are decomposed into scale and substitution effects, and it shows the geographic location effects for the selected microrregiões, and for this also the production effects. The agricultural frontier model is presented in basics ideas. The indices are presented for individual and the set of crops in the microrregiões and so are fluctuation of production of the set and location of crops in the State of Goiás. The results point changes in the crops composition in the State of Goiás. Staple food production in the new context, despite changes of territory of crops, it maintains important role in National context. It presents results about the important discussion that involves sugar-cane expansion, relations to soy-beans and cattle and conclusions about crop relations to ´cerrados´ area. The crop period goes is from 1990 to 2009. / A análise da composição das culturas no Estado de Goiás foi um trabalho iniciado por Yokoyama (1988). Neste realiza-se uma continuação aliada a uma atualização metodológica ao utilizar elementos como mapas e gráficos que permitiram uma visão mais ampla dos fenômenos evidenciados pelos índices Shift-Share. Neste trabalho também ocorre uma renovação da análise, onde o conceito de fronteiras agrícolas fundamenta o estudo da ação dos sujeitos. Pelo modelo decompõe-se o efeito área em efeito escala e substituição, e apresenta também o efeito localização geográfica, apresentando estes índices também em porcentagem, para as culturas selecionadas. Os efeitos são apresentados também para as microrregiões selecionadas, sendo que para estas foi possível discutir o efeito composição do produto. O modelo de fronteiras agrícolas é apresentado em suas idéias fundamentais. São apresentadas as análises a partir do cálculo dos índices, para as culturas e conjunto de lavouras, e a localização das culturas no Estado. Os resultados apontam para ocorrências na produção de alimentos frente a este novo panorama, onde apesar de o Estado sofrer consideráveis alterações na área plantada destas culturas a sua importância mantém-se no contexto nacional. Apresenta dados e resultados sobre a discussão que envolve expansão da cana-de-açúcar, relações com a soja e o gado e conclusão sobre as relação entre as culturas e as áreas de cerrado. O período analisado foi 1990 a 2009.