Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / The field of two-dimensional (2D) nanomaterials first began in earnest with the discovery of graphene in 2004 due to their unique shape-dependent optical, electronic, and mechanical properties. These properties arise due to their one-dimensional confinement and are further influenced by the elemental composition of the inorganic crystal lattice. There has been an intense focus on developing new compositions of 2D nanomaterials to take advantage of their intrinsic beneficial properties in a variety of applications including catalysis, energy storage and harvesting, sensing, and polymer nanocomposites. However, compared to the field of bulk materials, the influence of surface chemistry on 2D nanomaterials is still underdeveloped. 2D nanomaterials are considered an “all-surface” atomic structure with heights of a single to few layers of atoms. The synthetic methods used to produce 2D materials include bottom-up colloidal methods and top-down exfoliation related techniques. Both cases result in poorly controlled surface chemistry with many undercoordinated surface atoms and/or undesirable molecules bound to the surface. Considering the importance surfaces play in most applications (i.e., catalysis and polymer processing) it is imperative to better understand how to manipulate the surface of 2D nanomaterials to unlock their full technological potential. Through a focus of the ligand-surface atom bonding in addition to the overall ligand structure we highlight the ability to direct morphological outcomes in lead free halide perovskites, maximize optoelectronic responses in substoichiometric tungsten oxide, and alter physicochemical properties titanium carbide MXenes. The careful control of precursor materials including poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) surface ligands during the synthesis of bismuth halide perovskites resulted in the formation of 2D quasi-Ruddlesden-Popper phase nanomaterials. Through small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) and in conjunction with X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) we were able to conclude that an in-situ formation of an amino functional group on our PEG-amine ligand was inserted into the perovskite crystal lattice enabling 2D morphology formation. Additionally, through UV-vis absorption and ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopies we were able to develop a complete electronic band structure of materials containing varying halides (i.e., Cl, Br, and I). Furthermore, through the increased solubility profile of the PEG ligands we observed solvent controlled assemblies of varying mesostructures. We developed an ex-situ ligand treatment to manipulate the localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) response of anion vacancy doped tungsten oxide (WO3-x) nanoplatelets (NPLs). Upon ligand treatment to alter the surface passivating ligand from carboxylic acid containing myristic acid (MA) to tetradecylphosphonic acid (TDPA) we observed a >100 nm blue shift in the LSPR response. Using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and Raman spectroscopies in conjunction with DFT calculated Raman spectra we were able to conclude this shift was due to the formation of tridentate phosphonate bonds on the NPLs surface. Phosphonate bonding allows for an increase in surface passivation per ligand decreasing surface trapped electrons. These previously trapped electrons were then able to participate as free electrons in the LSPR response. Electron paramagnetic spectroscopy (EPR) further supported this decrease in surface traps through a decrease and shift of the EPR signal related to metal oxide surface trapped electrons. Lastly, using our knowledge of PEG ligands we were able to modify esterification chemistry to covalently attach PEG ligands to a MXene surface. The successful formation of an ester bond between a carboxylic acid containing PEG ligand and hydroxyl terminating group on the MXene surface was supported by FTIR spectroscopy and thermogravimetric analysis. The attachment of PEG resulted in a drastic change in the hydrophilicity of the MXene surface. Where MXenes were previously only processed in extremely polar solvents the PEG attachment allowed for high dispersibility in a wide range of polar and non-polar organic solvents, effectively increasing their processability. Further, this chemistry was modified to include an additional functional group on the PEG ligand to increase the valency of the post-modification MXene nanoflakes. Overall, work presented in this dissertation represents the development and application of surface chemistry to relatively new 2D nanomaterials. We believe our work significantly increases the knowledge of 2D halide perovskite formation, manipulation of LSPR active metal oxide materials, and the future processing of MXene materials.

Despite numerous advantages of using particles in a wide range of applications, they have one drawback that is their tendency to agglomerate. One way to overcome this problem is to sterically  stabilize the particles by introducing polymeric  chains covalently attached to the surface. Surface modification by covalently attaching polymer chains to the particle surface can be achieved by e.g. a ‘grafting-from’ technique under UV irradiation. In this thesis, polylactide (PLA) particles were surface modified, under UV irradiation, with the hydrophilic monomers: acrylamide (AAm), acrylic acid (AA), and maleic anhydride (MAH). The developed ‘grafting-from’ technique was shown to be nondestructive method for surface modification of PLA particles of two different geometries. The change in surface chemistry of the PLA particles was confirmed by FTIR and XPS, indicating the success of the surface grafting technique. Force interaction between two surface grafted PLA substrates was measured by colloidal probe AFM in different salt concentrations. In order to understand the repulsive force, the AFM force profiles were compared to the DLVO theory and AdG model. Long range repulsive interactions were mainly observed when hydrophilic polymers were covalently attached to the surface of PLA particles, leading to steric interaction. Attractive force dominated the interaction when neat PLA particle was approaching each other, resulting in particle aggregation, even though short range repulsion was observed at small separation distance, i.e. approximately 10 nm. Attractive interaction was also observed when neat PLA was approaching to PAA-grafted PLA substrate. This attractive interaction was much greater than force interaction between two neat PLA substrates.  The surface grafted particles can be used in biomedical application where secondary interactions are important to overcome particle agglomeration such as particle-based drug delivery. / <p>QC 20130529</p>

Parmi tous les nanomatériaux carbonés, les nanodiamants de détonation (NDs) possèdent des propriétés physico-chimiques exceptionnelles faisant d’eux un matériau idéal pour les applications en biologie. Aujourd’hui, la production industrielle permet de synthétiser des NDs ayant une taille de 5 nm comportant un cœur diamant et une enveloppe de surface possédant différentes terminaisons. La chimie de surface des NDs peut être modifiée par recuit ou par plasma donnant des NDs négativement ou positivement chargés en suspension dans l’eau. Notre équipe a récemment démontré des propriétés radiosensibilisantes des NDs hydrogénés par plasma (H-NDs) sur des lignées cellulaires cancéreuses radiorésistantes. Ces résultats prouvent leur aptitude thérapeutique comme agents radiosensibilisants. Cependant, les mécanismes impliqués dans cet effet ne sont pas bien compris. L’objectif principal de ce travail de thèse est d’étudier le comportement des NDs en suspension dans l’eau sous irradiation (rayons X et gamma) et de mesurer la production d’espèces réactives de l’oxygène (ROS) en particulier les radicaux hydroxyles HO. Des expériences complémentaires ont permis de détecter la production d’électrons solvatés (eaq). La détection des radicaux HO et des électrons solvatés (eaq) a été réalisée en utilisant une sonde fluorescence, la 7 OH-coumarine, dans des atmosphères différentes (air and N2O/O2). Différentes chimies de surface ont été comparées (oxydée, hydrogénée, graphitisée en surface) préparées à partir de la même source de NDs. En parallèle, les propriétés colloïdales et la stabilité de ces NDs dans l’eau ont été étudiées à court et à long terme en fonction de leur chimie de surface. Une surproduction de radicaux HO a été mesurée pour les H-NDs hydrogénés par les deux méthodes et pour les NDs recuites sous vide à 750°C. De plus, une surproduction d’électrons solvatés a été mise en évidence pour les H-NDs. Ces résultats sont discutés en fonction de la chimie de surface, la stabilité colloïdale et les interactions spécifiques des molécules d’eau avec les NDs. / Among all nanocarbons, detonation nanodiamonds (NDs) possess outstanding chemical and physical properties suitable for bio-applications. Well-controlled mass production provides NDs with a primary size of 5 nm made of a diamond-core and a shell-coating containing various surface terminations. Surface chemistry of NDs can be tuned via thermal or plasma treatments providing either positively or negatively charged NDs in water suspension. Our group recently showed that plasma hydrogenated NDs (H-NDs) behave a radiosensitizing effect on radioresistant cancer cell lines providing potential therapeutic abilities as radiosensitizing agents. Nevertheless, the mechanisms involved behind this effect are not currently well understood. The main goal of this PhD is to study the behaviour of NDs suspended in water under ionizing radiations (X-ray and Gamma) and to investigate the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), in particular hydroxyl radicals (HO). Additional experiments allow to detect also produced solvated electrons (eaq). The detection of HO radicals and solvated electrons was realized in the presence of a fluorescence probe, the 7 OH-coumarin, under various atmospheres (air and N2O/O2). Starting from the same source of NDs, different surface chemistries were compared (oxidized, hydrogenated and surface graphitized). In parallel, colloidal properties and stability of these modified NDs in water with respect to their surface chemistry were investigated at short and long term. An overproduction of HO was observed for H-NDs for both hydrogenation methods and vacuum annealed NDs at 750°C. In addition, the production of solvated electrons was confirmed for H-NDs. These results were discussed taking into account the surface chemistry, the colloidal stability and specific interactions of water molecules with NDs.

Les modifications de surface par du chitosane ont été effectuées dans cette thèse de deux façons : physisorption de chitosane de différents paramètres moléculaires (« spin coating » de solutions acides homogènes) et greffage de chaînes de chitooligosaccharides dérivées propargyl (« grafting to ») sur les surfaces de silicium. Le premier cas d'étude vise à apporter une compréhension sur le lien existant entre les propriétés physicochimiques des films et les paramètres moléculaires du chitosane et l'impact de ses propriétés physicochimiques et paramètres moléculaires sur les réponses biologiques. A cette fin, les propriétés de mouillabilité, morphologiques, structurales des films d'une part et d'autre part les réponses d'adhésion et de prolifération de bactéries sur les films de chitosane ont été caractérisées. Dans cette étude, nous avons également pris en compte l'effet du type d'acide utilisé lors de la préparation des solutions ainsi que le vieillissement des films sur leurs propriétés physicochimiques. A l'issue de cette étude, les tests biologiques, notamment l'adhésion et la prolifération de bactéries sur les films de chitosane, ont montré des résultats plutôt liés aux paramètres moléculaires des films qu'à leurs propriétés physicochimiques. Le deuxième cas de modification de surface vise à fonctionnaliser chimiquement les surfaces de silicium par des chitooligosaccharides par la méthode « grafting to ». Cette modification a été réalisée en trois étapes : silanisation, azidation et greffage des chitooligosaccharides. Toutes ces étapes ont été validées par différentes caractérisations de la surface après chaque étape de greffage par ellipsométrie, tensiométrie, AFM, spectroscopie infrarouge et spectrométrie TOF-SIMS / The surface modifications have been carried out in this thesis by two different routes: by physisorption of chitosan chains with different molecular parameters onto silicon surfaces (spin coating of homogeneous acidic solutions) and grafting of propargyl- terminated chito-oligosaccharides chains onto silicon surfaces (grafting to). The first study case was to understand the relationship between the physicochemical properties of chitosan films and the molecular parameters, and to find the impact of these physicochemical properties and molecular parameters on the biological responses. To this end, the physicochemical properties such as the wettability, morphology, chemical and physical structure of chitosan films on the one hand, and the bacteria adhesion and spreading on chitosan films on the other hand, have been characterized. In this study, we have also considered the effect of the type of acid used when solubilizing the chitosan on the films neutralization as well as the film ageing effects on the physicochemical properties. At the end of the study, the biological response of the chitosan films showed more sensitivity towards the chitosan molecular parameters than towards the physicochemical properties of the films. The aim in the second case of surface modification was to functionalize the silicon surfaces with chito-oligosaccharides by the “grafting to” method. It was conducted in three steps: silanisation, azidation and grafting of chito-oligosaccharides. All these steps were validated one by one by carrying out various characterizations using ellipsometry, tensiometry, AFM, infrared spectroscopy and TOF-SIMS spectrometry

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Investigations were performed on the stability, mechanism of formation and an application of alkyl monolayers chemomechanically prepared on silicon surfaces. A new method of surface modification, laser-activation modification of surfaces (LAMS), and multivariate analyses of time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) images of LAMS spots were also reported. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and other data show that alkyl monolayers prepared by scribing silicon under 1-iodoalkanes and 1-alkenes were stable over extended periods of time to air, water, a boiling acid and Al Ka X-rays. The stability is attributed to direct Si-C bonding in the monolayers. The observation that the oxygen signals gradually increased and the iodine signals gradually decreased, with both finally reaching plateaus is attributed to the oxidation of exposed silicon by scribing, and the hydrolysis of Si-I bonds, respectively. In alkyl monolayers prepared with 1-alcohols, the carbon signals decreased about 50% after two 1-h immersions in a boiling acid, suggesting unstable Si-O bonding. In the analogous experiment of grinding silicon with alkyl halides, the expected free-radical combination and disproportionation byproducts were observed. This observation provides evidence for the mechanism previously proposed for alkyl monolayer formation on silicon by chemomechanically scribing. Miniaturized sample supports for matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry (MALDI-MS) were made on hydrophobic silicon or glass surfaces by scribing. With these sample supports, improved MALDI-MS signal intensities and reproducibilities were achieved for a test peptide, as expected. A new and promising method for surface modification, LAMS, was developed. XPS and ToF-SIMS analyses show that both silicon and germanium were effectively modified by LAMS with even quite inert compounds. This technique was also used to make miniaturized MALDI-MS sample supports. Compared to scribing, LAMS is faster and can be more precisely controlled. Multivariate analyses, automated expert spectral image analysis (AXSIA) and principal component analysis (PCA), were used in interpreting ToF-SIMS images of silicon surfaces modified with 1-alkenes by LAMS. Both analyses show that modified and unmodified areas are chemically different.

The functionalization of surfaces has received attention because the process allows the design and tailoring of substrate surfaces with a new or improved function. "Host-guest" thin film complexes are composed of "host" molecules attached the substrate surface, either through physisorption or covalent bonds, with cavities for the inclusion of desired "guest" molecules for the functionalization of the surface. Two methods for fabricating functional "host-guest" thin films were investigated: Langmuir-Blodgett (LB) deposition and self-assembly monolayer (SAM). Langmuir films were created at the air-water interface using octadecanesulfonic acid (C18S) as the amphiphilic "host" molecules separated by hydrophilic guanidinium (G) spacer molecules, which created a cavity allowing the inclusion of desired "guest" molecules. Surface pressure-area isotherms of the (G)C18S, with and without guests, are characterized by the lift-off molecular areas and are use to determine the proper deposition surface pressure. "Host-guest" Langmuir films are deposited onto silicon substrates using the LB deposition technique. The LB films were then subjected to stability testing using different solvents over increasing periods of time. Grazing-angle incidence X-ray diffraction (GIXD), specular X-ray reflectivity (XRR) and transfer ratio measurements were used to characterize the crystallinity, film thickness, overall film stability and film coverage. The GIXD data revealed that the crystallinity of the deposited film varies with the "guest" molecules and can be disrupted by the functional group on the "guest" molecule through hydrogen bonding. After modeling the XRR data using StochFit, it was discovered that the more polar solvent, tetrahydrofuran (THF), removed the film completely while the nonpolar solvent, hexane, compacted the thin film and increased the electron density. With transfer ratios around 0.95 to 1.05, the deposited films were homogenous. The second method used was self-assembly monolayers, which differs from Langmuir films in that they are created by a spontaneous chemical synthesis from immersing a substrate into a solution containing an active surfactant. Octadecyltrichlorosilane (OTS) was used initially as a molecule to study the self-assembled monolayer procedure. To study a "host-guest" self-assembled monolayer system, a compound is being synthesized from 9-bromoanthracene. This compound would already contain the cavity necessary for the inclusion of "guest" molecules. The solution that contained OTS was composed of a 4:1 mixture of anhydrous octadecane: chloroform. Silicon substrates with a deposited oxide layer were hydroxylated for the surfactant binding chemical reaction to occur. The OTS SAMs were exposed to the same stability tests as the LB films. Surface contact angle measurements were taken of the OTS SAMs before and after the stability tests. The contact angle prior to the stability tests was 110° (±2°). The contact angle after immersion in THF was 101° (±2°) while the contact angle resulting from immersion in hexane was 105° (±2°). From the contact angle measurements, the degradation of the OTS SAMs was less extensive than that of the (G)C18S LB films. / Master of Science