My aim with this research has been to see how surrogate mothers' situation in Georgia looks like, and how different aspects affect the understanding of the process itself and create different prerequisites for surrogate mothers. I interviewed staffs who meet surrogate mothers in their work. I conducted five interviews. The theories I have chosen to use in the study is Maslow's hierarchy of needs and Goffman's labeling theory. I concluded that surrogacy is a controversial subject that is interesting to analyze, based on these theories. After I had interviewed people, it turned out that there are some hierarchical differences between surrogate mothers and biological mothers. The study shows those surrogate mothers' motives and perception is different in society, leading to stigma and categorized ring of the phenomenon. In the future it will be interesting to formulate, visualize, debate and discuss how surrogacy affects society and the professionals' assessments of the phenomenon. I hope that the study raises future interest in others and brings new perspectives which professionals can benefit from. / Mitt mål med denna uppsats har varit att se hur surrogatmödrars situation i Georgien ser ut, och hur olika aspekter påverkar förståelsen för själva processen och skapar olika förutsättningar för surrogatamödrar.  Jag gjorde detta genom att intervjua personal som träffar surrogatamödrar i sin verksamhet. Jag genomförde fem intervjuer. De teorier jag valt att använda i studien är Maslows behovstrappa och Goffmans stämplingsteori. Jag kom fram till att surrogatmödraskap är ett omdiskuterat ämne som är intressant att analysera utifrån dessa teorier. Efter att jag intervjuat personerna visade det sig att det förekommer en del hierarkiska skillnader mellan surrogatmödrar och biologiska mammor. Studien visar att surrogatmödrarnas motiv och uppfattning ser olika ut i samhället, vilket leder till stigmatisering och kategorisering av själva fenomenet. I framtiden kommer det bli intressant att formulera, synliggöra, problematisera och diskutera hur surrogatmödraskap påverkar samhället och professionellas bedömningar på fenomenet. Jag hoppas att studien väcker framtida intresse för andra och bidrar med nya perspektiv som professionella kan ha nytta av.

Magister Legum - LLM / Surrogacy on many occasions is referred to a million-dollar industry. Just like many countries, South Africa has prohibited commercial surrogacy, thus South Africa only permits altruistic surrogacy. The prohibition has consequences for third parties such as surrogacy agencies and surrogacy facilitators, as their right to occupation freedom which is guaranteed by the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, is limited. No right is absolute, any right can be limited if it can be proved that it is in the best interest of the public. The prohibition on commercial surrogacy is argued to be in the best interest of the public as it can lead to the exploitation of women and the commodification of children.

É indiscutível os inúmeros benefícios decorrentes do avanço da ciência, principalmente no campo da reprodução artificial, entretanto cada vez mais se mostra necessário impor limites, tanto na área médica quanto na jurídica, devendo-se regulamentar, legal e especificamente a matéria, com o fim de se coibir abusos e proteger direitos. Ademais, o avanço rápido da ciência tem preocupado sobremaneira a sociedade relativamente às conseqüências decorrentes do uso indevido por parte de pesquisadores, médicos e clínicas reprodutivas, das inovações e possibilidades nesta área. Nada justifica que a busca científica desenfreada, por exemplo, de seres humanos geneticamente melhorados, ultrapasse limites éticos, morais e sociais, discriminando-se àqueles que não se enquadram nos padrões sociais previamente estereotipados. Na presente pesquisa, a responsabilidade civil e penal é tratada como forma inibidora de tais atos, mas não se mostra como única solução possível. Sendo assim, questões como o direito dos embriões, o direito a vida, a dignidade humana, a sucessão hereditária, a filiação, entre outros, são objeto primordial da presente obra, de forma que lhe sejam assegurados ampla tutela jurídica nesse sentido. Também questões relativas à gestação de substituição e a autorização daqueles que pretendem implantar um embrião, sejam pais genéticos ou não, na utilização das técnicas de reprodução artificial, aqui se encontram abordadas. Busca-se também proteger o direito de igualdade entre filhos, proibindo-se consequentemente a discriminação entre eles em razão de sua origem. São também esclarecidas as técnicas de reprodução artificial, bem como as teorias relativas ao início da vida para caracterizar-se a personalidade jurídica. Por fim, há ainda, nesta obra, preocupação em esclarecer conceitos, diferenciando-se terminologias e estabelecendo-se definições necessárias tanto na área jurídica quanto médica. / It is undiscuss the numerous benefits resulting from Science advance, especially concerning artificial reproduction, however it is necessary put on limits in medical and legal concernes, having to regulatory, legal rules in order to cohabit abuses and protect rights. Moreover, fast science advance has been worring the society about consequences becomes from the improper use from reserarchers, medical and reproductive clinics concerning innovations and possibilities in this area. Nothing can justifies the fast serch, for example, for humans genetically improveds, it exceeds ethical, moral and social limits, broking down who is not in conform to social standar previously sterotyped. In this research, the civil and penal liability is treated as inhibitory form of such acts, but not appears as the only possible solution. In order, issues concerning embryos rights, such as life rights, human dignity, hereditary succession, among others, are primary subject of this book, performing ensured broad legal protection accordingly. Also issues related to surrogate mother and the authorization of those intending to deploy an embryo, be or not the genetic fathers, in the use of artificial reproduction technical, here related in this work. Also seeks proteting to the rights of equality between sons, in order to forbid discrimination among them because of their origins. The work also clarified the techniques of artificial reproductions, as well as theories concerning the beginning of life to be characterized legal personality. Finally, in this current work, there is worry to clarify the concepts, differing terminologies and definitions needed both in legal and medical fields.

É indiscutível os inúmeros benefícios decorrentes do avanço da ciência, principalmente no campo da reprodução artificial, entretanto cada vez mais se mostra necessário impor limites, tanto na área médica quanto na jurídica, devendo-se regulamentar, legal e especificamente a matéria, com o fim de se coibir abusos e proteger direitos. Ademais, o avanço rápido da ciência tem preocupado sobremaneira a sociedade relativamente às conseqüências decorrentes do uso indevido por parte de pesquisadores, médicos e clínicas reprodutivas, das inovações e possibilidades nesta área. Nada justifica que a busca científica desenfreada, por exemplo, de seres humanos geneticamente melhorados, ultrapasse limites éticos, morais e sociais, discriminando-se àqueles que não se enquadram nos padrões sociais previamente estereotipados. Na presente pesquisa, a responsabilidade civil e penal é tratada como forma inibidora de tais atos, mas não se mostra como única solução possível. Sendo assim, questões como o direito dos embriões, o direito a vida, a dignidade humana, a sucessão hereditária, a filiação, entre outros, são objeto primordial da presente obra, de forma que lhe sejam assegurados ampla tutela jurídica nesse sentido. Também questões relativas à gestação de substituição e a autorização daqueles que pretendem implantar um embrião, sejam pais genéticos ou não, na utilização das técnicas de reprodução artificial, aqui se encontram abordadas. Busca-se também proteger o direito de igualdade entre filhos, proibindo-se consequentemente a discriminação entre eles em razão de sua origem. São também esclarecidas as técnicas de reprodução artificial, bem como as teorias relativas ao início da vida para caracterizar-se a personalidade jurídica. Por fim, há ainda, nesta obra, preocupação em esclarecer conceitos, diferenciando-se terminologias e estabelecendo-se definições necessárias tanto na área jurídica quanto médica. / It is undiscuss the numerous benefits resulting from Science advance, especially concerning artificial reproduction, however it is necessary put on limits in medical and legal concernes, having to regulatory, legal rules in order to cohabit abuses and protect rights. Moreover, fast science advance has been worring the society about consequences becomes from the improper use from reserarchers, medical and reproductive clinics concerning innovations and possibilities in this area. Nothing can justifies the fast serch, for example, for humans genetically improveds, it exceeds ethical, moral and social limits, broking down who is not in conform to social standar previously sterotyped. In this research, the civil and penal liability is treated as inhibitory form of such acts, but not appears as the only possible solution. In order, issues concerning embryos rights, such as life rights, human dignity, hereditary succession, among others, are primary subject of this book, performing ensured broad legal protection accordingly. Also issues related to surrogate mother and the authorization of those intending to deploy an embryo, be or not the genetic fathers, in the use of artificial reproduction technical, here related in this work. Also seeks proteting to the rights of equality between sons, in order to forbid discrimination among them because of their origins. The work also clarified the techniques of artificial reproductions, as well as theories concerning the beginning of life to be characterized legal personality. Finally, in this current work, there is worry to clarify the concepts, differing terminologies and definitions needed both in legal and medical fields.

Surrogate maternity ABSTRACT This graduation theses deals with surrogacy, which is really an actual and discussed issue at the present time. The thesis is divided into three main chapters, the first one is devoted to assisted reproduction, the second one belongs to surrogacy, the third chapter deals with determining parentage of artificial insemination. The first part considering assisted reproduction contains a short analysis of this issue from the medical and juridical point of view and also shows an overview of interfility causes and their therapies. The second chapter shows legal regulations of surrogacy abroad that could be seen as an inspiration for both, the current and future legislation of the Czech Republic. This chapter also pays attention to particular law institutes that temporarily adjust this subject-matter, especially the contracts between surrogate mother and requesting couple, adoptions by surrogate mother and is briefly focused on criminal legislation. A view at the change of legislation in connection with acceptance of new civil code is part of this chapter as well. The third and the last chapter is devoted to determination of parenthood. As regards the paternity, there are three basic hypothesis accepted, that are however modificated by the legislation of asisted reproduction in some...

In this research, I carefully and coherently examine Chapter 19 of the Children's Act 38 of 2005 as the first legislation to afford surrogate motherhood agreements legal recognition in South Africa. I argue that the application of Chapter 19 imposes a number of unwarranted limitations on several of the constitutional rights of the parties to a surrogacy agreement. In addition, I propose that Chapter 19 is not in accordance with the principal of the best interests of the child. I examine the history of surrogate motherhood in South Africa and establish that, prior to the enactment of Chapter 19, no legislation expressly afforded surrogate motherhood agreements legal recognition. Hence, prior to the enactment of Chapter 19, parties who entered surrogacy agreements could, first, not rely on the agreement to enforce contractual obligations, and secondly, the legal positions of the parties to the agreement were uncertain. Thirdly, a child born of a surrogacy agreement was seen as the child of the surrogate mother and not of the commissioning parents.

In this research, I carefully and coherently examine Chapter 19 of the Children's Act 38 of 2005 as the first legislation to afford surrogate motherhood agreements legal recognition in South Africa. I argue that the application of Chapter 19 imposes a number of unwarranted limitations on several of the constitutional rights of the parties to a surrogacy agreement. In addition, I propose that Chapter 19 is not in accordance with the principal of the best interests of the child. I examine the history of surrogate motherhood in South Africa and establish that, prior to the enactment of Chapter 19, no legislation expressly afforded surrogate motherhood agreements legal recognition. Hence, prior to the enactment of Chapter 19, parties who entered surrogacy agreements could, first, not rely on the agreement to enforce contractual obligations, and secondly, the legal positions of the parties to the agreement were uncertain. Thirdly, a child born of a surrogacy agreement was seen as the child of the surrogate mother and not of the commissioning parents.

Magister Legum - LLM / In this research, I carefully and coherently examine Chapter 19 of the Children's Act 38 of 2005 as the first legislation to afford surrogate motherhood agreements legal recognition in South Africa. I argue that the application of Chapter 19 imposes a number of unwarranted limitations on several of the constitutional rights of the parties to a surrogacy agreement. In addition, I propose that Chapter 19 is not in accordance with the principal of the best interests of the child. I examine the history of surrogate motherhood in South Africa and establish that, prior to the enactment of Chapter 19, no legislation expressly afforded surrogate motherhood agreements legal recognition. Hence, prior to the enactment of Chapter 19, parties who entered surrogacy agreements could, first, not rely on the agreement to enforce contractual obligations, and secondly, the legal positions of the parties to the agreement were uncertain. Thirdly, a child born of a surrogacy agreement was seen as the child of the surrogate mother and not of the commissioning parents. / South Africa

Cette thèse de caractère pluridisciplinaire traite des progrès de la biologie de la reproduction dans le domaine de l’infertilité face à la Convention internationale des droits de l’enfant (CIDE) des Nation-unies. La première partie montre que, en France, il y a conciliation entre l’intérêt supérieur de l’enfant et l’assistance médicale à la procréation, encadrée par le triptyque des lois de bioéthique de 1994. La deuxième partie traite des dérives de ces techniques pratiquées à des fins sociétales et non médicales. Des parents intentionnels désireux d’un « enfant à tout prix », puisque la loi n° 2013-404 du 17 mai 2013 ouvrant le mariage aux couples de même sexe n’a pas « ouvert » le droit à l’accès de ces techniques de reproduction assistée, se rendent au cours d’un « tourisme procréatif » dans un pays où la maternité de substitution ou gestation pour autrui (GPA) est licite et ont un enfant grâce à une mère de substitution, qui assure la gestation de l’embryon, puis du foetus via une fécondation in vitro. Mais lors du retour en France de l’enfant, eu égard aux articles 16-7 et 16-9 du code civil, se pose le problème de la filiation de l’enfant sans compter sur les risques de la maternité de substitution, d’où l’incompatibilité des techniques de reproduction assistée à des fins sociétales avec la Convention internationale des droits de l’enfant, l’adage latin "mater semper certa est" étant la garantie de l’intérêt supérieur de l’enfant. / This thesis has a plurisdisciplinary approach and deals with the improvements of biology of reproduction in the field of infertility regarding the International Convention on the Rights of the Child of the United Nations (ICRCUN). The first part shows, that in France, there is conciliation between the best interests of the child and the medical assistance to procreation, legalised by the triptych of the bioethics law of 1994. The second part deals with the drifts of those practices used for societal ends and not medical. Intended parents willing to have “a child at all costs”, as the law n° 2013-404 of May 17, 2013 allowing the marriage to couples of the same sex has not “allowed” the right to have access to thoses technics of assisted reproduction, do “procreative tourism” and go to a country in which the surrogate maternity or gestational surrogacy (GS) is legal and have a child thanks to surrogate mother who ensures the gestation of the embryo, and the foetus through an in vitro fertilization (IVF). However, back to France, according to articles 16-7 and 16-9 of the Civil Code, the issue of the filiation of the child arises, without counting on the risks of the surrogate maternity, hence the incompatibility of the methods of assisted reproduction to societal purposes with the International on Rights of the child, the Latin proverb "mater semper certa est" being the guarantee of the best interest of the child.

The following is a study and comparison of the various types of surrogacy currently being implemented locally and internationally and the laws surrounding it. I discuss the current South African legal framework on surrogacy and summarise the relevant legislative provisions whilst also further discussing the provisions prohibiting commercial surrogacy and the reasons behind them. Thereafter an investigation follows into other counties in respect of their individual laws regulating surrogacy and more specifically, commercial surrogacy. I discuss how these countries attempted to regulate commercial surrogacy and which regulations were a success and which weren‘t. The various international laws and regulations surrounding surrogacy as well as commercial surrogacy is then compared and discussed in a South African context. A discussion on the intertwined constitutional rights of the surrogate mother, commissioning parents and child follows and in conclusion I offer some recommendations on how to go about legalising commercial surrogacy safely and successfully implementing it free from exploitation. / Private Law / LL.M. (Specialisation in Private Law)