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Coronavirus disease 2019 (covid-19) är en smittsam infektionssjukdom som orsakas av viruset severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Sedan sjukdomens utbrott i december 2019 har viruset spridits globalt och infekterat fler än 270 miljoner människor världen över. Majoriteten av de som insjuknar i covid-19 får lindriga till måttliga besvär, men en liten del blir allvarligt sjuka och behöver sjukhusvård. Bland de patienter som blir allvarligt sjuka i covid-19 diagnostiseras en betydande del i det akuta skedet med sväljsvårigheter, eller dysfagi. Föreliggande studie bestod i en retrospektiv journalgranskning, som en del av ett kvalitetssäkringsarbete inom Region Gävleborg. Syftet med studien var att undersöka hur sväljsvårigheter kan manifesteras hos personer som vårdas på sjukhus till följd av covid-19 och som remitterats till logoped för bedömning och åtgärder. 60 deltagare inkluderades i studien, varav 17 var kvinnor och 43 var män. Resultaten visar att förekomsten av dysfagi var hög i det akuta skedet, där 42 deltagare (70 %) bedömdes ha dysfagi vid första logopedbedömning. Många deltagare återhämtade sig från sin dysfagi under vårdtiden, men 12 deltagare (20 %) hade kvarstående dysfagi vid utskrivning. Behovet av nutritionsstöd och andningsstöd under vårdtiden var stort. Vanliga fynd under de kliniska sväljbedömningarna var hosta, trögutlöst sväljning och nedsatt oral bearbetning. Deltagarna erhöll logopediska rekommendationer främst gällande anpassad kost, sittställning och munvård. Deltagarnas sväljförmåga skattades med Functional Oral Intake Scale (FOIS) vid första logopedbedömning och vid utskrivning. Vid första bedömning rekommenderades en majoritet av deltagarna anpassad kost (FOIS 1–6) och medelvärdet för FOIS var 3,5 ± 2,1. Vid utskrivning hade de flesta återgått till normalkost (FOIS 7) och medelvärdet för FOIS var 6,0 ± 1,8 (p < 0,001). Denna studie visar att en majoritet av de som vårdats på sjukhus till följd av covid-19 i Region Gävleborg och som remitterats till logoped, uppvisade dysfagi i det akuta skedet men kunde vid utskrivning äta normalkost. Behovet av mer forskning och vidare analyser av hur sväljsvårigheter manifesteras och upplevs hos patientgruppen är fortsatt stort. / Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a contagious infectious disease caused by the virus severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Since the outbreak in December of 2019, the virus has spread globally and infected more than 270 million people worldwide. The majority of people infected with COVID-19 will have mild to moderate symptoms, but some will suffer from severe illness which requires hospital care. Many of those who experience severe illness from COVID-19 are diagnosed with swallowing difficulties, or dysphagia, in the acute stage. This study consisted of a retrospective medical chart review and is part of a review of quality control in Region Gävleborg. The aim of the study was to investigate how swallowing difficulties manifest in people who require hospital care due to COVID-19 and who have been referred to the Speech and Language Therapy department. 60 participants were included in the study, of whom 17 were women and 43 were men. The results show that the prevalence of dysphagia was high in the acute stage, where 42 participants (70%) were diagnosed with dysphagia during the first SLT assessment. Many participants recovered from their dysphagia during their hospital stay, but 12 participants (20%) had persistent dysphagia at discharge. The need for nutritional and respiratory support was high. Common findings from the clinical swallowing assessments were coughing, difficulty initiating swallowing as well as affected oral processing. Common SLT recommendations included modified consistencies, posture and oral care. Swallowing ability was graded with the Functional Oral Intake Scale (FOIS) at first SLT assessment and at discharge. At first SLT assessment a majority of the participants were recommended a modified diet (FOIS 1-6) and the average FOIS was 3.5 ± 2.1. At discharge most participants had returned to a normal diet (FOIS 7) and the average FOIS was 6.0 ± 1.8 (p < 0,001). This study shows that a majority of the people who were hospitalized due to COVID-19 in Region Gävleborg and who were referred for an SLT evaluation, had dysphagia in the acute stage and recovered from their swallowing difficulties before discharge. More research and further analyses of how swallowing difficulties manifest in patients hospitalized due to COVID-19 is still needed.

L’objectif primaire de la présente thèse (appelé OBJECTIF 1) est d’investiguer si, et quand dans la séquence développementale, la présence de difficultés d’alimentation-déglutition est associée à un risque élevé d’apparition concomitante et/ou ultérieure de difficultés langagières à 12, 18 et 24 mois. Ses objectifs secondaires sont de fournir un ensemble de données cliniques sur le développement des habiletés d’alimentation-déglutition entre 8 et 24 mois (OBJECTIF 2) et d’explorer la validité divergente du questionnaire sur l’alimentation-déglutition de McFarland et al. (2020; OBJECTIF 3). Ces objectifs ont mené au recrutement de 140 enfants ayant 8 mois ou approchant 8 mois en âge (c.-à-d. ayant de 7 mois 3 semaines à 8 mois), nés à terme, élevés dans un environnement monolingue francophone et n’ayant pas, à 8 mois, une condition biomédicale associée à l’apparition de difficultés langagières. Leurs habiletés d’alimentation-déglutition et de langage ont été caractérisées à quatre reprises (à 8, 12, 18 et 24 mois) à l’aide du questionnaire sur l’alimentation-déglutition de McFarland et al. (2020) et des Inventaires MacArthur-Bates du développement de la communication (Trudeau et al., 1997a, 1997b, 2008). Les habiletés d’alimentation-déglutition d’un sous-groupe de 30 enfants (parmi les 140 initialement recrutés) ont également été caractérisées à 8 mois à l’aide de l’évaluation clinique standardisée de l’alimentation-déglutition intitulée Schedule for Oral Motor Assessment (Reilly et al., 2000). Pour répondre à l’objectif 1, les réponses parentales aux questionnaires sur l’alimentation-déglutition et aux Inventaires MacArthur-Bates du développement de la communication ont été réduites pour assurer une puissance statistique et codées pour la présence et l’absence de difficultés d’alimentation-déglutition et de langage. Des régressions logistiques ont par la suite été réalisées pour investiguer la relation potentielle entre les variables d’intérêt. À partir des résultats des régressions logistiques, des arbres d’inférence conditionnelle ont également été construits pour visualiser la relation entre les variables d’intérêt. Puisque l’ensemble des enfants présentant un reflux, des allergies alimentaires et/ou des intolérances alimentaires n’avaient pas de difficultés langagières à 18 et 24 mois et que la présence de ces conditions médicales est un variable confondante potentielle, deux régressions logistiques ont été réalisées pour chacun des statuts langagiers : une première avec les données de l’ensemble des enfants de l’échantillon et une deuxième avec les données des enfants de l’échantillon ne présentant pas d’allergies, d’intolérances alimentaires et/ou un reflux. Les résultats révèlent que la présence de difficultés de contrôle salivaire à 18 mois est associée à un risque élevé d’apparition de difficultés langagières à 18 et/ou 24 mois. Ils révèlent également que certains indicateurs de difficultés de mastication et/ou de sélectivité alimentaire n’étant pas attribuables à un reflux, des allergies alimentaires et/ou des intolérances alimentaires et apparaissant à 24 mois (en l’absence de difficultés de contrôle salivaire, de mastication et/ou de sélectivité alimentaire à 18 mois) sont associés à un risque élevé d’apparition de difficultés langagières à 24 mois. Lorsque mise en relation avec la littérature précédemment publiée, ces données suggèrent que la présence de difficultés d’alimentation-déglutition chez les enfants ayant des difficultés langagières reflète un problème au niveau des réseaux neuronaux impliqués dans le développement des habiletés de langage et de l’alimentation-déglutition (Krishnan et al., 2016; McFarland et Tremblay, 2006). Elles fournissent également des indicateurs pouvant être utilisés en clinique pour identifier les enfants qui sont à risque de difficultés langagières. Pour répondre à l’objectif 2, les réponses parentales aux 33 questions du questionnaire sur l’alimentation-déglutition ont été codées pour la présence et l’absence de 33 difficultés d’alimentation-déglutition. Puis, le pourcentage d’enfants ayant au moins une difficulté d’alimentation-déglutition à 8, 12 18 et 24 mois a été calculé et comparé. Les trois difficultés d’alimentation-déglutition (parmi les 33) les plus fréquemment rapportées par les parents à chacune des tranches d’âge ciblées dans l’étude ont également été identifiées. Les résultats montrent que le pourcentage d’enfants ayant au moins une difficulté d’alimentation-déglutition passe de 81% à 8 mois à 54% à 24 mois et que deux indicateurs de sélectivité alimentaire font partie de ceux les plus fréquemment rapportés à trois ou quatre des quatre tranches d’âge ciblées dans la thèse. Ces données contribuent à mieux comprendre le contexte expérimental/clinique dans lequel la relation développementale potentielle entre les sphères de l’alimentation-déglutition et du langage prend place. Pour répondre à l’objectif 3, seules les données recueillies pour le sous-groupe de 30 enfants ayant participé à l’évaluation clinique de l’alimentation-déglutition ont été utilisées. Le pourcentage d’enfants identifiés avec au moins une difficulté d’alimentation-déglutition à l’aide du questionnaire sur l’alimentation-déglutition de McFarland et al. (2020) a été comparé au pourcentage d’enfants identifiés avec un trouble d’alimentation-déglutition à l’aide du Schedule for Oral Motor Assessment (Reilly et al., 2000). Les résultats montrent que le pourcentage d’enfants ayant au moins une difficulté d’alimentation-déglutition est significativement plus élevé que le pourcentage d’enfants identifiés avec un trouble d’alimentation-déglutition. Ces résultats suggèrent que le questionnaire sur l’alimentation-déglutition de McFarland et al. (2020) ne mesure pas les mêmes concepts qu’une évaluation standardisée conçue pour identifier la présence de troubles d’alimentation-déglutition, supportant ainsi son utilisation dans la présente thèse qui investigue la relation potentielle entre la présence de difficultés d’alimentation-déglutition et de langage entre 8 et 24 mois. / The primary objective of this thesis (referred to as OBJECTIVE 1) is to investigate whether, and when in the developmental sequence, the presence of feeding-swallowing difficulties is associated with an increased risk of concomitant and/or subsequent language difficulties at 12, 18, and 24 months. Its secondary objectives are to provide clinical data on the development of feeding-swallowing abilities between 8 and 24 months (OBJECTIVE 2) and to explore the divergent validity of the feeding-swallowing questionnaire developed by McFarland et al. (2020; OBJECTIVE 3). These objectives led to the recruitment of 140 children at 8 months or near 8 months of age (i.e., from 7 months 3 weeks to 8 months), born at term, raised in a monolingual French environment, and without any biomedical condition at 8 months known to be associated with language difficulties. The feeding-swallowing and language abilities of these children were characterized on four occasions (at 8, 12, 18, and 24 months) using the Feeding-Swallowing Questionnaire developed by McFarland et al. (2020) and the MacArthur-Bates Communication Development Inventories (Trudeau et al., 1997a, 1997b, 2008). The feeding-swallowing abilities of a subgroup of 30 children (from the 140 initially recruited) were also characterized at 8 months using the standardized clinical feeding-swallowing assessment entitled Schedule for Oral Motor Assessment (Reilly et al., 2000). To address Objective 1, parental responses to the Feeding-Swallowing Questionnaires and the MacArthur-Bates Communication Development Inventories were reduced for ensuring enough statistical power and coded for the presence and absence of feeding-swallowing and language difficulties. Logistic regressions were subsequently performed to investigate the potential relationship between the variables of interest. Based on the results of the logistic regressions, conditional inference trees were also constructed to visualize the relationship between the variables of interest. Since all children with reflux, food allergies and/or food intolerances did not have language difficulties at 18 and 24 months and these medical conditions are potential confounding variables, two logistic regressions were performed for each of the language statuses: one with data from all children in the sample and a second with data from children in the sample without allergies, food intolerances and/or reflux. The results show that the presence of salivary control difficulties at 18 months is associated with an increased risk of developing language difficulties at 18 and/or 24 months of age. They also revealed that the presence of certain indicators of chewing difficulties and/or food selectivity not attributable to reflux, food allergies and/or food intolerances and appearing at 24 months (in the absence of salivary control, chewing and/or food selectivity difficulties at 18 months) are associated with an increased risk of language difficulties at 24 months. When related to previously published literature, these data suggest that the presence of feeding-swallowing difficulties in children with language difficulties reflects a problem in the neural networks involved in the development of language and feeding-swallowing abilities (Krishnan et al., 2016; McFarland & Tremblay, 2006). They also provide indicators that can be used clinically to identify children who are at risk for language difficulties. To address Objective 2, parental responses to the 33 questions of the Feeding-Swallowing Questionnaire were coded for the presence and absence of 33 feeding-swallowing difficulties. The percentage of children with at least one feeding-swallowing difficulty at 8, 12 18, and 24 months was then calculated and compared. The three (out of 33) feeding-swallowing difficulties most frequently reported by parents at each age studied were also identified. The results show that the percentage of children with at least one feeding-swallowing difficulty decreases from 81% at 8 months to 54% at 24 months and that two indicators of feeding selectivity are among those most frequently reported by parents at three or four of the four ages studied in this thesis. These data increase our understanding of the experimental/clinical context in which the potential developmental relationship between the feeding-swallowing and language spheres takes place. To address Objective 3, only data collected for the subgroup of 30 children who participated in the clinical feeding-swallowing assessment were used. The percentage of children identified with at least one feeding-swallowing difficulty using the Feeding-Swallowing Questionnaire of McFarland et al. (2020) was compared to the percentage of children identified with a feeding-swallowing disorder using the Schedule for Oral Motor Assessment (Reilly et al., 2000). The results show that the percentage of children with at least one feeding-swallowing difficulty is significantly higher than the percentage of children identified with a feeding-swallowing disorder. These results suggest that the Feeding-Swallowing Questionnaire developed by McFarland et al. (2020) does not measure the same constructs as a standardized assessment designed to identify feeding-swallowing disorder. They are therefore supporting its use in this thesis investigating the relationship between the presence of feeding-swallowing and language difficulties between 8 and 24 months.

Aims: The aims of this research were to describe the signs and symptoms of dysphagia in people who are living with HIV/AIDS and to see what participant variables such as CD4 count, age and diagnosis affect dysphagia. Methods: This study was a descriptive, cross-sectional, quasi non-experimental design. The sampling method that was used for this research was non-probability and convenient. These patients were referred to the speech therapy and audiology department from various multidisciplinary team members for dysphagia assessments. There were 106 participants in total. Eighty participants underwent only a clinical bedside assessment and 26 underwent a bedside assessment as well as a modified barium swallow. The Mann Assessment of Swallowing Ability (MASA) was used to conduct the clinical bedside assessments and a modified barium swallow (MBS) was used as an objective measure. The data was analysed using both descriptive and inferential statistics. These tests included the Wilcoxon signed rank test, Spearman Rho test, Kruskal-Wallis and Mann Whitney U-test. Results: Descriptively, the results revealed that participants with neurological conditions appeared to present with more severe signs and symptoms of dysphagia. The results from the Wilcoxon signed rank test showed that participants with a neurological disorder experienced more severe signs and symptoms of dysphagia, except with laryngeal elevation. The Wilcoxon signed rank test also showed that older participants experienced more dysarthria and oral transit difficulties. The results from the Kruskal-Wallis test highlighted that participants with a lower CD4 count had more significant respiration and voice difficulties. The results from the Mann-Whitney U test showed that participants who were on a HAART regimen experienced increased difficulty in the pharyngeal phase and aspirated more frequently. The Spearman-Rho test results showed that the MASA was seen as a valid bedside assessment tool for assessing adult dysphagia in an acute hospital setting. Discussions: Dysphagia does occur in the HIV/AIDS population in South Africa in participants who have neurological conditions as well as opportunistic infections. The SLP needs to play a key role in the assessment and management of these patients. The MASA is a good assessment tool to use in settings where objective measures are not available.