Ziel der hier vorgelegten Untersuchung war es, die Bedeutung von S. aureus-Exotoxinen/Superantigenen als Pathogenitätsfaktor bei der AD zu analysieren, da kausalpathogenetisch ausgerichtete Experimentalansätze sowie systematische klinische Untersuchungen zu dieser Thematik bei Patienten mit AD ausstanden. In einer Querschnittsstudie war eine Assoziation zwischen dem Grad der S. aureus-Besiedlung und dem Schweregrad der AD nachzuweisen. Von 74 Kindern mit AD waren 60 (81%) mit S. aureus kolonisiert. S. aureus Exotoxin-sezernie-rende Stämme wurden bei 40 Patienten (53%) von der Haut isoliert. Am häufigsten wurden SEA- und SEC-sezernierende Stämme nachgewiesen, gefolgt von SEB, TSST-1 und SED. Der ausgeprägteste Schweregrad der AD wurde in der mit Exotoxin-sezernierenden S. aureus-kolonisierten Gruppe beobachtet. Für die Schwere der Erkrankung, gemessen am SCORAD-Score wurde eine Varianzaufklärung von 30% für die Exotoxine und 50% für die S. aureus-Infektion errechnet. In einer Subgruppe von Patienten wurde der Einfluß von S. aureus-Exotoxinen auf intradermale T-Zell-Rezeptor-Vß-Repertoir-Veränderungen untersucht. Bei den Patienten mit chronischer AD, die mit SEB-sezernierendem S. aureus besiedelt waren, war mittels immunhistologischer Untersuchung in der Haut nachzuweisen, dass zwischen 25% und 65% der intradermalen T-Zellen das zugehörige Superantigen-reaktive Vß-T-Zell-Repertoire gegenüber 5% bis 17% der T-Zellen im Blut exprimieren. Weder in der Haut noch im Blut war eine Akkumulation nicht-superantigenreaktiver T-Zell-Subpopulationen nachzuweisen. Auch fand sich keine selektive Akkumulation von Vß-T-Zell-Subpopulationen bei Kindern mit S. aureus-Kolonisierung ohne Exotoxinnachweis. Die Ergebnisse belegen, dass bei Kindern mit AD und positivem S. aureus-Exotoxinnachweis auf ekzematöser Haut ein Grossteil der dermal akkumulierten T-Zellen auf diese S. aureus-Exotoxine/Superantigene reagieren können und wesentlich an der Pathogenese der AD beteiligt sind. In einer Teilpopulation bei 58 Kindern mit AD wurden Prävalenz und Rolle von Serum-IgE-Antikörpern gegen die S. aureus-Exotoxine SEA und SEB untersucht. Bei 34% der Kinder mit AD (20/58) konnten wir spezifische IgE-Antikörper gegen SEA und/oder SEB nachweisen (45% zu SEB, 10% zu SEA und 45% zu SEA und SEB). Alle gegen SEA und SEB sensibilisierten Kindern waren mit S. aureus kolonisiert gegenüber 71% (27/38) der nicht-sensibilisierten Kinder. Der Grad der S. aureus-Besiedlung, die Prävalenz von SEB-sezernierendem S. aureus auf der Haut, sowie die Prävalenz von S. aureus-Hautinfektionen war in der sensibilisierten Gruppe höher. Die höchste Varianzaufklärung von 37% wurde zwischen dem Vorliegen von S. aureus-Hautinfektionen und dem Nachweis spezifischer SEA/SEB-IgE-Antikörper ermittelt; diese stellen somit einen Risikofaktor für eine Sensibilisierung gegen S. aureus-Exotoxine dar. Die SEA/SEB-sensibilisierte Gruppe zeigte einen höheren Schweregrad der AD, höhere Serum-Gesamt-Spiegel und eine polyvalente Sensibilisierung gegen Inhalations- und Nahrungsmittelallergene. Insgesamt belegen unsere klinischen, immunologischen und statistischen Ergebnisse, dass die S. aureus-Exotoxine einen wesentlichen Einfluss auf die Immunpathogenese der AD haben. Eine orale Therapie mit CyA kann bei S. aureus-kolonisierten Kindern die S. aureus-Besiedlungsdichte reduzieren. In der S. aureus-infizierten Gruppe war die Prävalenz von Exotoxin-produzierendem S. aureus und die Krankheitsaktivität höher, wobei eine Verminderung der Besiedlung nicht beobachtet wurde. Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit erlauben den Schluss, dass S. aureus-Exotoxine als Triggerfaktor die Exazerbation der AD im Kindesalter wesentlich unterstützen. Deswegen sollte in ein therapeutisches Konzept eine konsequente Prävention bzw. eine Behandlung von S. aureus-Infektionen einbezogen werden. Kinder mit bereits schwerer AD profitieren von einer immunmodulatorischen Therapie. / Background: The skin of patients suffering from atopic dermatitis (AD) exhibits a striking susceptibility to colonization with S. aureus. Some strains of S. aureus secrete exotoxins with T cell superantigen activity (toxigenic strains) and abnormal T cell functions are known to play a critical role in AD. Objective: The aim of this study was to determine the impact of exotoxin production by skin-colonizing S. aureus on disease severity and the presence of T-cell subsets in lesional skin. Furthermore, we investigated the effect of oral cyclosporin A in severe pediatric atopic dermatitis on disease severity and S. aureus colonization density. Methods: In a cross sectional study of 74 children with atopic dermatitis, the presence and density of toxigenic and non-toxigenic strains of S. aureus was correlated with disease severity. In a subgroup of patients the T cell receptor (TCR) Vß repertoire of peripheral blood and lesional T cells was investigated and correlated with individual superantigen activity of skin colonizing S. aureus. Furthermore, in a subgroup of patients, the presence of IgE antibodies to SEA and SEB was correlated with severity of the disease and the total and other unrelated allergen-specific IgE titers and density of colonization with S. aureus strains on atopic skin and episodes of superficial S. aureus skin infections. Eleven children with severe AD (SCORAD score > 50) were treated for eight weeks with 2.5 to 5 mg/kg CyA. In five children the skin was only colonized with S. aureus whereas the remaining six patients had clinically relevant skin infections with requirement for systemic antibiotic therapy. The isolates from the latter patients were sensitive for the selected antibiotics. Clinical and microbiological investigations were performed before and after CyA therapy. Results: 53% of children with AD were colonized with toxigenic strains of S. aureus producing SEC, SEA, TSST-1, SEB and SED in decreasing frequency. Children colonized with toxigenic S. aureus strains presented with higher disease severity as compared to the non-toxigenic and S. aureus negative groups. The influence of exotoxin production on the SCORAD score was determined as R2 = 0.3 (ie, 30% of the SCORAD score is explained by exotoxin production), whereas infection with S. aureus revealed R2 = 0.5. Patients colonized with toxigenic S. aureus exhibited shifts in the intradermal TCR Vß repertoire which correspond to the respective superantigen-responsive T cell subsets. In a subgroup of patients, twenty of 58 children (34%) were sensitized to superantigens (45% to SEB, 10% to SEA, 45% to SEA and SEB). In this group, severity of AD and levels of specific IgE to food and air allergens were higher. The degree of disease severity correlated to a higher extent with the presence of SEA/SEB-specific antibodies than with total serum IgE levels. Density of colonization with superantigen-secreting S. aureus strains was higher in the superantigen IgE-positive group. Sixty-three of these children experienced repeated episodes of superficial S aureus skin infections. The influence of S. aureus skin infection on the presence of SEA/SEB-specific antibodies was determined as R2 = 0.37 (ie, 37% of the the presence of SEA/SEB-specific antibodies is explained by S. aureus superficial skin infection). In the group of patients, who were treated with CyA, clinical signs and symptoms of AD improved in all patients (mean SCORAD score reduction from 74 to 29). However, disease severity was more supressed by CyA in the "colonized" patients compared with the patients with clinical S. aureus infections. Furthermore, there was a significant decrease in S. aureus density on atopic skin after CyA treatment in "colonized" patients but not in "infected" patients. The prevalence of exotoxin producing strains was higher in the "infected" group. Conclusion: The data demonstrate that S. aureus released exotoxins can modulate disease severity and dermal T cell infiltration. Patients, suffering from AD may take profit from both consequent prevention or treatment of S. aureus skin infection as well as immunmodulating approaches.

<p>Stimulation of the T cell receptor (TCR) induces tyrosine phosphorylation of numerous intracellular proteins, leading to activation of the interleukin-2 (IL-2) gene in T lymphocytes. Shb is a ubiquitously expressed adapter protein, with the ability to associate with the T cell receptor and several signaling proteins in T cells, including: the TCR ζ-chain, LAT, PLC-γ1, Vav, SLP-76 and Gads. Jurkat T cells expressing Shb with a mutation in the SH2 domain, exhibited reduced phosphorylation of several proteins and abolished activation of the MAP kinases ERK1, ERK2 and JNK, upon CD3 stimulation. The TCR induced Ca²⁺ response in these cells was abolished, together with the activation of the IL-2 promoter via the transcription factor NFAT. Consequently, IL-2 production was also perturbed in these cells, compared to normal Jurkat T cells. Shb was also seen to associate with the β and γ chains of the IL-2 receptor, upon IL-2 stimulation, in T and NK cells. This association occurred between the Shb SH2 domain and Tyr-510 of the IL-2R β chain. The proline-rich domains of Shb were found to associate with the tyrosine kinases JAK1 and JAK3, which are important for STAT-mediated proliferation of T and NK cells upon IL-2 stimulation. Shb was also found to be involved in IL-2 mediated regulation of apoptosis. These findings indicate a dual role for Shb in T cells, where Shb is involved in both T cell receptor and IL-2 receptor signaling. </p><p>A Shb homologue, Shf was identified, and seen to associate with the PDGF-α-receptor. Shf shares high sequence homology with Shb and a Shd (also of the Shb family) in the SH2 domain and in four motifs containing putative tyrosine phosphorylation sites. When Shf was overexpressed in fibroblasts, these cells displayed significantly lower rates of apoptosis than control cells in the presence of PDGF-AA. These findings suggest a role for the novel adapter Shf in PDGF-receptor signaling and regulation of apoptosis.</p>

The objective of this thesis was to investigate the effects of the somatotrope GH/IGF-1 axis upon the thymus. This work included two parts: 1. Translational research study: Thymus function in adult GH deficiency (AGHD) with and without GH treatment Background: Despite age-related adipose involution, T cell generation in the thymus (thymopoiesis) is maintained beyond puberty in adults. In rodents, growth hormone (GH), insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), and GH secretagogues reverse agerelated changes in thymus cytoarchitecture and increase thymopoiesis. GH administration also enhances thymic mass and function in HIV-infected patients. Until now, thymic function has not been investigated in adult GH deficiency (AGHD). The objective of this clinical study was to evaluate thymic function in AGHD, as well as the repercussion upon thymopoiesis of GH treatment for restoration of GH/IGF-1 physiological levels. Methodology/Principal Findings: Twenty-two patients with documented AGHD were enrolled in this study. The following parameters were measured: plasma IGF-1 concentrations, signal-joint T-cell receptor excision circle (sjTREC) frequency, and sj/b TREC ratio. Analyses were performed at three time points: firstly on GH treatment at maintenance dose, secondly one month after GH withdrawal, and thirdly one month after GH resumption. After 1-month interruption of GH treatment, both plasma IGF-1 concentrations and sjTREC frequency were decreased (p,0.001). Decreases in IGF-1 and sjTREC levels were correlated (r = 0.61, p,0.01). There was also a decrease in intrathymic T cell proliferation as indicated by the reduced sj/b TREC ratio (p,0.01). One month after reintroduction of GH treatment, IGF-1 concentration and sjTREC frequency regained a level equivalent to the one before GH withdrawal. The sj/b TREC ratio also increased with GH resumption, but did not return to the level measured before GH withdrawal. Conclusions: In patients with AGHD under GH treatment, GH withdrawal decreases thymic T cell output, as well as intrathymic T cell proliferation. These parameters of thymus function are completely or partially restored one month after GH resumption. These data indicate that the functional integrity of the somatotrope GH/IGF-1 axis is important for the maintenance of a normal thymus function in human adults. 2. Fundamental study: intrathymic expression of members of the GH/IGF-1 axis and effects of GH on T-cell differentiation in murine fetalthymic organ cultures (FTOC). We here address the question of expression and role of GH/IGF axis in the thymus. Methods: Using RT-qPCR, the expression profile of various components of the somatotrope GH/IGF axis was measured in different thymic cell types and during thymus embryogenesis in Balb/c mice. Effect of GH on T-cell differentiation was explored through thymic organotypic culture. Results: Transcription of Gh, Igf1, Igf2 and their related receptors predominantly occurred in thymic epithelial cells (TEC), while a low level of Gh and Igf1r transcription was also evidenced in thymic T cells (thymocytes). Gh, Ghr, Ins2, Igf1, Igf2, and Igfr1, displayed distinct expression profiles depending on the developmental stage. The protein concentration of IGF-1 and IGF-2 were in accordance with the profile of their gene expression. In fetal thymus organ cultures (FTOC) derived from Balb/c mice, treatment with exogenous GH resulted in a significant increase of double negative CD4-CD8- T cells and CD4+ T cells, with a concomitant decrease in double positive CD4+CD8+ T cells. These changes were inhibited by concomitant treatment with GH and GHR antagonist pegvisomant. However, GH treatment also induced a significant decrease in FTOC Gh, Ghr and Igf1 expression. Conclusion: These data show that the thymotropic properties of the somatotrope GH/IGF-1 axis involve an interaction between exogenous GH and GHR expressed by TEC. Since thymic IGF-1 is not increased by GH treatment, the effects of GH upon T-cell differentiation could implicate a different local growth factor or cytokine.

Stimulation of the T cell receptor (TCR) induces tyrosine phosphorylation of numerous intracellular proteins, leading to activation of the interleukin-2 (IL-2) gene in T lymphocytes. Shb is a ubiquitously expressed adapter protein, with the ability to associate with the T cell receptor and several signaling proteins in T cells, including: the TCR ζ-chain, LAT, PLC-γ1, Vav, SLP-76 and Gads. Jurkat T cells expressing Shb with a mutation in the SH2 domain, exhibited reduced phosphorylation of several proteins and abolished activation of the MAP kinases ERK1, ERK2 and JNK, upon CD3 stimulation. The TCR induced Ca2+ response in these cells was abolished, together with the activation of the IL-2 promoter via the transcription factor NFAT. Consequently, IL-2 production was also perturbed in these cells, compared to normal Jurkat T cells. Shb was also seen to associate with the β and γ chains of the IL-2 receptor, upon IL-2 stimulation, in T and NK cells. This association occurred between the Shb SH2 domain and Tyr-510 of the IL-2R β chain. The proline-rich domains of Shb were found to associate with the tyrosine kinases JAK1 and JAK3, which are important for STAT-mediated proliferation of T and NK cells upon IL-2 stimulation. Shb was also found to be involved in IL-2 mediated regulation of apoptosis. These findings indicate a dual role for Shb in T cells, where Shb is involved in both T cell receptor and IL-2 receptor signaling. A Shb homologue, Shf was identified, and seen to associate with the PDGF-α-receptor. Shf shares high sequence homology with Shb and a Shd (also of the Shb family) in the SH2 domain and in four motifs containing putative tyrosine phosphorylation sites. When Shf was overexpressed in fibroblasts, these cells displayed significantly lower rates of apoptosis than control cells in the presence of PDGF-AA. These findings suggest a role for the novel adapter Shf in PDGF-receptor signaling and regulation of apoptosis.

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune inflammatory disease that leads to degradation of cartilage and bone mainly in peripheral joints. In collagen-induced arthritis (CIA), a mouse model for RA, activation of autoimmune CD4+ T cells depends on a molecular recognition system where T-cell receptors (TCRs) recognize a complex between the class II MHC Aq protein and CII259-273, a glycopeptide epitope from type II collagen (CII). Interestingly, vaccination with the Aq/CII259-273 complex can relieve symptoms and cause disease regression in mice. This thesis describes the use of modified glycopeptides to explore interactions important for binding to the Aq protein and recognition by autoimmune T-cell hybridomas obtained from mice with CIA. The CII259-273 glycopeptide was modified by replacement of backbone amides with different amide bond isosteres, as well as substitution of two residues that anchor the glycopeptide in prominent pockets in the Aq binding site. A three-dimensional structure of the Aq/glycopeptide complex was modeled to provide a structural basis for interpretation of the modified glycopeptide’s immunological activities. Overall, it was found that the amide bond isosteres affected Aq binding more than could be explained by the static model of the Aq/glycopeptide complex. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, however, revealed that the introduced amide bond isosteres substantially altered the hydrogen-bonding network formed between the N-terminal 259-265 backbone sequence of CII259-273 and Aq. These results indicated that the N-terminal hydrogen-bonding interactions follow a cooperative model, where the strength and presence of individual hydrogen bonds depended on the neighboring interactions. The two important anchor residues Ile260 and Phe263 were investigated using a designed library of CII259-273 based glycopeptides with substitutions by different (non-)natural amino acids at positions 260 and 263. Evaluation of binding to the Aq protein showed that there was scope for improvement in position 263 while Ile was preferred in position 260. The obtained SAR understanding provided a valuable basis for future development of modified glycopeptides with improved Aq binding. Furthermore, the modified glycopeptides elicited varying T-cell responses that generally could be correlated to their ability to bind to Aq. However, in several cases, there was a lack of correlation between Aq binding and T-cell recognition, which indicated that the interactions with the TCRs were determined by other factors, such as presentation of altered epitopes and changes in the kinetics of the TCR’s interaction with the Aq/glycopeptide complex. Several of the modified glycopeptides were also found to bind well to the human RA-associated DR4 protein and elicit strong responses with T-cell hybridomas obtained from transgenic mice expressing DR4 and the human CD4 co-receptor. This encourages future investigations of modified glycopeptides that can be used to further probe the MHC/glycopeptide/TCR recognition system and that also constitute potential therapeutic vaccines for treatment of RA. As a step towards this goal, three modified glycopeptides presented in this thesis have been identified as candidates for vaccination studies using the CIA mouse model.

T-cell receptor (TCR) polyclonal mature T cells are surprisingly resistant to oncogenic transformation after retroviral insertion of T-cell oncogenes. In a mouse model, it has been shown that mature T-cell lymphoma/leukemia (MTCLL) is not induced upon transplantation of mature, TCR polyclonal wild-type (WT) T cells, transduced with gammaretroviral vectors encoding potent T-cell oncogenes, into RAG1-deficient recipients. However, further studies demonstrated that quasi-monoclonal T cells treated with the same protocol readily induced MTCLL in the recipient mice. It has been hypothesized that in the TCR polyclonal situation, outgrowth of preleukemic cells and subsequent conversion to overt malignancy is suppressed through regulation of clonal abundances on a per-clone basis due to interactions between TCRs and self-peptide-MHC-complexes (spMHCs), while these mechanisms fail in the quasi-monoclonal situation. To quantitatively study this hypothesis, we applied a mathematical modeling approach. In particular, we developed a novel ordinary differential equation model of T-cell homeostasis, in which T-cell fate depends on spMHC-TCR-interaction-triggered stimulatory signals from antigen-presenting cells (APCs). Based on our mathematical modeling approach, we identified parameter configurations of our model, which consistently explain the observed phenomena. Our results suggest that the preleukemic cells are less competent than healthy competitor cells in acquiring survival stimuli from APCs, but that proliferation of these preleukemic cells is less dependent on survival stimuli from APCs. These predictions now call for experimental validation.

No description available.

O diabetes mellitus tipo 1 (DM-1) é uma doença autoimune órgão-específica caracterizada pela destruição seletiva das células pancreáticas produtoras de insulina. A imunossupressão em altas doses seguida do transplante autólogo de células-tronco hematopoéticas (TACTH) constitui uma alternativa terapêutica recente e promissora para o DM-1 recém-diagnosticado, impedindo a progressão da destruição das células pancreáticas produtoras de insulina e induzindo independência insulínica por um período prolongado na maioria dos pacientes. O princípio dessa terapia baseia-se na eliminação das células autorreativas pela imunossupressão intensa e na reconstituição de um sistema imunológico novo e tolerante após o transplante. Com o objetivo de avaliar a função do timo e sua contribuição na geração do repertório de células T nos pacientes com DM-1 após o TACTH, nesse trabalho foram avaliados os níveis de T cell receptor excision circles (TRECs) em células T do sangue periférico e a diversidade do repertório de células T dos pacientes com DM-1 (n=23) antes e em diversos períodos após o transplante. A quantificação absoluta dos níveis de TRECs (número de moléculas de TRECs/100g de DNA) foi realizada pela técnica de PCR em tempo real e a avaliação do repertório de células T foi realizada pela técnica de TCRBV CDR3 Spectratyping. Dentre os vinte e três pacientes, vinte alcançaram a independência insulínica por períodos variáveis de tempo e três não responderam ao tratamento. Não foi observada a restrição do repertório de células T nos pacientes com DM-1 no período pré-transplante, ou seja, quando recém-diagnosticados. Foram identificadas cinco famílias V (7, 18, 19, 20 e 22) em expansão clonal nos pacientes com DM-1. As famílias V 7, 18, 19, 20 apresentaram-se em expansão clonal antes do transplante e se mantiveram com frequência elevada após o transplante, enquanto a família V 22 apresentou aumento da frequência somente nos períodos mais tardios após o transplante. Nos primeiros meses após o transplante, houve redução do número de moléculas de TRECs e restrição do repertório de células T. Contudo, um ano após o transplante, o número de moléculas de TRECs atingiram valores normais e o repertório de células T apresentou-se com ampla diversidade. Nossos resultados mostraram que o TACTH foi capaz de induzir mudanças na composição do repertório de células T dos pacientes com DM-1 após a terapia de IAD/TACTH, evidenciadas por alterações qualitativas e quantitativas dos picos de CDR3 do TCR, sugerindo a reconstituição de um repertório de células T diverso até dois anos pós-transplante. Embora tenha ocorrido reativação da função tímica após o transplante, evidenciada pelo aumento dos níveis de TRECs de um ano e meio a cinco anos pós-transplante, a diversidade do repertório das células T diminuiu a partir de dois anos e meio pós-transplante, sugerindo uma reconstituição tímica de novo de células T naive que expressam preferencialmente algumas cadeias V. Estas evidências imunológicas poderiam explicar a melhora clínica (independência insulínica) temporária observada na maioria dos pacientes após a terapia de IAD/TACTH. / Type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1D) is an organ-specific autoimmune disease characterized by insulin-producing pancreatic cell destruction. High-dose immunosuppression followed by autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (AHSCT) is a recent and promising therapeutic approach for treatment of T1D, preventing the progress of destruction of pancreatic cells and inducing insulin independence for a prolonged period in most patients. The rationale of the AHSCT is based on the elimination of autoreactive cells by the intense immunosuppression and on the reconstitution of a new and tolerant immune system after transplantation. Aiming at assessing the thymic role in the production of new T cell repertoire in T1D patients after AHSCT, in this study was evaluated the levels of T cell receptor excision circles (TRECs) in T cells of peripheral blood as well as the clonality and diversity of T cell repertoire in T1D patients (n=23) before and several periods after transplantation. The absolute quantification of TRECs levels (number of molecules of TRECs/100ng of DNA) was performed by real-time PCR and the analysis of T cell repertoire was performed by TCRBV CDR3 Spectratyping. Among the twenty-three patients, twenty achieved insulin independence for variable periods and three did not respond to the treatment. The T cell repertoire in T1D patients was not restricted in pre-transplantation, i.e., when newly diagnosed. It was identified five V families (7, 18, 19, 20 e 22) in the clonal expansion in T1D patients. The V families 7, 18, 19, 20 were in clonal expansion before transplantation and maintained with high frequency after transplantation, whereas the V 22 family increased its frequency only in the later periods after transplantation. It was observed that the numbers of molecules of TRECs decreased and the T cell repertoire was restricted in the early months after transplantation. However, the levels of TRECs were normalized and the T cell repertoire showed diversity one year after transplantation. Our results indicate that AHSCT was able to induce changes in the composition of the T cell repertoire of patients after AHSCT, evidenced by qualitative and quantitative changes in the composition of T-cell receptor -chain CDR3 peaks, suggesting the reconstitution of diverse T cell repertoire up to two years after transplantation. Although there was reactivation of thymic function after transplantation, as evidenced by increased levels of TRECs from one and a half year to five years after transplantation, the diversity of the T cells repertoire decreased from two and a half years after transplantation, suggesting a reconstruction of new naive T cells that preferentially express some V chains. These immunological evidences could explain the temporary clinical improvement (insulin independence) observed in most patients after IAD / AHSCT therapy.

Les lymphocytes T orchestrent la réponse immunitaire adaptative afin de nous protéger contre les pathogènes. Les lymphocytes T sont dotés d’un récepteur de surface, le récepteur de cellules T (TCR), qui transmet le signal de stimulation vers l’intérieur de la cellule afin d’amorcer la cascade d’activation des cellules T. Le TCR est un complexe multimérique composé des dimères TCRαβ, CDεγ, CD3εδ et CD3ζζ. Les chaînes TCRαβ reconnaissent les antigènes pathogéniques tandis que les chaînes CD3 initient la cascade de signalisation des cellules T par la phosphorylation de leurs chaînes cytoplasmiques. Il est toujours incompris comment le signal d’activation du TCR est transmis des chaînes TCRαβ jusqu’aux domaines cytoplasmiques des chaînes CD3. Chez les lymphocytes T au repos, les chaînes CD3ε et CD3ζ sont associées au feuillet interne de la membrane plasmique (MP). Le domaine cytoplasmique de CD3ε et CD3ζ est riche en acides aminés basiques, ce qui permet leur association électrostatique avec les phospholipides acides de la MP. La phosphatidylsérine (PS) est le phospholipide acide le plus abondant de la MP. La PS est redistribuée exclusivement à la face cytoplasmique de la MP. Lors de l’activation des lymphocytes T, les chaînes CD3ε et CD3ζ des TCRs doivent se détacher de la PS pour leur phosphorylation. La dissociation membranaire d’un grand nombre de chaînes CD3 est essentielle à l’amplification de l’activation des lymphocytes T. Un mécanisme de dissociation des chaînes CD3ε et CD3ζ des TCRs proposé dans la littérature est par l’élévation intracellulaire de calcium. Un influx robuste de calcium est généré suivant la stimulation des cellules T. En plus d’être essentiel à l’activation efficace des cellules T, il a été proposé que le calcium neutralise les phospholipides acides de la MP afin de dissocier les chaînes CD3. Le calcium est également un co-facteur dans l’activité de plusieurs enzymes, comme la scramblase lipidique TMEM16F. TMEM16F redistribue la PS à la MP suivant l’élévation du calcium intracellulaire, ce qui résulte en la réduction de la PS au feuillet interne. Nous avons donc émis l’hypothèse que le calcium régule la dissociation des chaînes CD3 par l’activation de TMEM16F. Notre étude démontre que la redistribution calcium-dépendante de la PS par TMEM16F est essentielle à la dissociation membranaire de CD3ε dans la lignée de cellules T Jurkat. La réduction de l’expression de TMEM16F par ARN interférant (shTMEM16F) empêche la dissociation massive des chaînes CD3ε suivant la stimulation des cellules T. De plus, les cellules shTMEM16F démontrent une diminution de la phosphorylation des molécules de signalisation des cellules T. En contraste, l’expression d’une forme constitutivement active de TMEM16F augmente la redistribution de PS à la MP, la dissociation membranaire des chaînes CD3ε et la phosphorylation des molécules de signalisation. Notre étude démontre que la redistribution de la PS par la scramblase calcium-dépendante TMEM16F régule la dissociation membranaire des chaînes CD3 du TCR afin d’amplifier l’activation des cellules T. Enfin, nous avons confirmé les défauts d’activation dans des cellules T murines primaires exprimant shTMEM16F lors d’une réponse immunitaire. En conclusion, notre étude démontre le rôle de la régulation de la PS dans l’activation des cellules T. Nous avons démontré que nous pouvons modifier le niveau d’activation des cellules T en modulant la PS à la MP. Nos résultats ont ainsi plusieurs implications pour la conception et l’amélioration des immunothérapies basées sur les cellules T. / T lymphocytes protect us against pathogens by orchestrating the adaptive immune response. T lymphocytes possess a specific surface receptor, the T cell receptor (TCR), which conveys the stimulation signal towards the cytoplasm for the initiation of the T cell activation cascade. The TCR is a multimeric complex composed of the TCRαβ, CDεγ, CD3εδ and CD3ζζ dimers. The TCRαβ chains recognize the pathogenic antigens while the CD3 chains initiate the T cells signaling cascade through the phosphorylation of their cytoplasmic tails. It is not yet understood how the TCR activating signal is transmitted through the membrane from the TCRαβ chains towards the cytoplasmic tails of the CD3 chains. In resting T cells, the CD3ε and CD3ζ chains are associated to the inner leaflet of the plasma membrane (PM). The cytoplasmic tails of CD3ε and CD3ζ are rich in basic amino acids, which allow electrostatic association with acidic phospholipids at the PM. Phosphatidylserine (PS) is the most abundant acidic phospholipid and is exclusively distributed towards the cytoplasmic PM leaflet. During T cell activation, the CD3ε and CD3ζ cytoplasmic tails have to dissociate from PS for their phosphorylation. The membrane dissociation of a large number of CD3 chains is essential for the amplification of T cell activation. A mechanism of CD3ε and CD3ζ chain dissociation that has been proposed in the literature is through intracellular calcium elevation. A robust calcium influx is generated following T cell stimulation. In addition to its essential role in regulating T cell activation, it has been proposed that calcium ions neutralize the PM acidic phospholipids for CD3 chain dissociation. Calcium is also an essential cofactor for the activity of many enzymes, such as the phospholipid scramblase TMEM16F. TMEM16F redistributes PS at the PM following intracellular calcium mobilization, resulting in a reduction of inner leaflet PS. We propose that calcium regulates CD3 chain dissociation through TMEM16F activity. Our study demonstrates that calcium-dependent PS redistribution by TMEM16F is required for CD3ε membrane dissociation in the Jurkat T cell line. Reduction of TMEM16F expression by shRNA targeting (shTMEM16F) prevents massive CD3ε chain dissociation following 8 T cell stimulation. The shTMEM16F cells show a reduction in the phosphorylation of TCR-proximal signaling molecules. In contrast, expression of a constitutively active mutant of TMEM16F increases PS redistribution, CD3ε chain dissociation and phosphorylation of TCR-proximal signaling molecules. Our study demonstrates that PS redistribution by the calcium-dependent TMEM16F scramblase regulates CD3 chain dissociation for the amplification of T cell activation. In addition, we have confirmed T cell activation defects in shTMEM16F murine primary T cells during an immune response. In conclusion, our study demonstrates the role of PS regulation by TMEM16F in T cell activation. We showed that we could modify the level of T cell activation by modulating the concentration of PS at the inner leaflet of the PM. Our results thus have important implications for the development and improvement of immune receptor-based cancer immunotherapies.

T lymphocytes are distinguished by the expression of αβ TCR or γδ TCR on their cell surface. The kinetic differences in the effector functions classifies γδ T cells as innate-like lymphocytes and αβ T cells as adaptive lymphocytes. Although distinct, αβ and γδ T cell lineages produce a common array of cytokines to mount an effective immune response against a pathogen. The production of cytokine IL-17 is a shared characteristic between the γδ T (Tγδ17) cells and the CD4 T (Th17) cells. γδ T cells develop into Tγδ17 cells in the thymus whereas CD4 T cells differentiate into Th17 cells in response to antigens in the peripheral lymphoid tissues. γδ T cells exported from the thymus, as pre-made effectors, are the early IL-17 producers compared with the late IL-17 producing Th17 cells. In this thesis we describe how TGFβ-SMAD2 dependent pathway selectively regulates Th17 cell differentiation but not Tγδ17 cells generation. We further illustrate the requirement of WNT-HMG box transcription factor (TF) signaling for the thymic programming of Tγδ17 cells. Cytokine TGFβ in co-operation with IL-6 induces the differentiation of Th17 cells. Conversely, TGFβ signaling also regulates the differentiation and maintenance of CD4+FOXP3+ regulatory T cells. The mechanism by which TGFβ signals synergize with IL-6 to generate inflammatory versus immunosuppressive T cell subsets is unclear. TGFβ signaling activates receptor SMADs, SMAD2 and SMAD3, which associate with a variety of nuclear factors to regulate gene transcription. Defining relative contributions of distinct SMAD molecules for CD4 T cell differentiation is critical for mapping the versatile intracellular TGFβ signaling pathways that tailor TGFβ activities to the state of host interaction with pathogens. We show here that SMAD2 is essential for Th17 cell differentiation and that it acts in part by modulating the expression of IL-6R on T cells. While mice lacking SMAD2 specifically in T cells do not develop spontaneous lymphoproliferative autoimmunity, Smad2-/- T cells are impaired in their response to TGFβ in vitro and in vivo and they are more pathogenic than controls when transferred into lymphopenic mice. These results demonstrate that SMAD2 is essential for TGFβ signaling in CD4+ T effector cell differentiation and that it possesses functional capabilities distinct from SMAD3. Although SMAD2 is essential for the differentiation of Th17 cells, TGFβ signaling via SMAD2 is not required for the thymic programming of innate Tγδ17 cells. Among different γδ T cells, Vγ2+ (V2) γδ T cells are the major IL-17 producing subsets. We demonstrate that Sry-high mobility group (HMG) box TFs regulate the development of V2 Tγδ17 cells. We show that the HMG box TF, SOX13 functions in a positive loop for the intrathymic generation of V2 Tγδ17 cells. SOX13 regulates the programming of Tγδ17 cells by controlling the expression of B-lymphoid kinase (BLK) in developing immature V2 γδ T cells. BLK is an Src-family kinase expressed by all Tγδ17 cells. Furthermore, we show another HMG box TF, TCF1, the nuclear effector of canonical WNT signaling, is the primary negative regulator of IL-17 production by all γδ T cells. We propose that the antagonism of SOX13 and TCF1 determines the generation of IL-17 producing γδ T cells. We also show that extrinsic cues from αβ T cells do not affect the generation of IL-17 producing γδ T cells. Using OP9-DL1 culture system, we demonstrate that the progenitors of V2 Tγδ17 cells are the c-Kit+ early thymic precursors.