L’infection à cytomégalovirus (CMV) cause des pathologies graves en absence d’immunité. Les lymphocytes T (LT) γδ participent à la réponse anti-CMV puisqu’ils s’amplifient dans le sang de patients transplantés rénaux concomitamment à une diminution de la charge virale. D’autre part, l’amplification T γδ est associée à un risque moindre de cancers cutanés chez ces patients. Nous avons choisi d’utiliser le modèle murin de l’infection à CMV afin d’étudier la capacité des LTγδ à protéger les souris contre l’infection et le cancer.Nous avons montré qu’en absence de LTαβ dans des souris TCRα-/- (αβ-γδ+), différentes sous populations de LTγδ s’amplifient dans les organes cibles du CMV. Le contrôle de la charge virale observé in situ suite à leur amplification protège les souris TCRα-/- des dommages hépatiques/pulmonaires et de la mort, alors que les souris CD3ε-/- (αβ-γδ-) succombent à l’infection. Enfin, l’effet protecteur des LTγδ est également observé en absence de NK, de LTαβ et de LB, montrant l’importance que peuvent avoir ces cellules dans un contexte d’immunodéficience touchant les autres acteurs immunitaires.Nous avons montré la capacité du CMV à inhiber la croissance de tumeurs coliques (MC38) et de mélanomes (B16F10) implantés en sous-cutané dans des souris immunodéficientes, révélant un rôle anti-tumoral du CMV indépendant de l’immunité et des LTγδ. La permissivité au CMV de ces lignées tumorales suggère un effet direct du virus, par apoptose (B16F10) ou par un mécanisme encore indéterminé (MC38). Enfin, une inhibition comparable est observée pour une lignée carcinomateuse humaine, présupposant un effet indirect du virus sur le microenvironnement tumoral. / Cytomegalovirus causes serious pathologies in immune-compromised hosts. γδ T cells increase in the peripheral blood of renal transplant recipients concomitantly to a decrease of CMV viral antigenemia, indicating that they participate to the immune response against CMV. Moreover, γδ T cell amplification is associated with a reduced risk of skin cancer in these patients. We chose to use the mouse model of CMV infection to study the capacity of γδ T cells to protect mice against CMVinfection and cancer.We showed that in the absence of αβ T cells in TCRα-/- mice (αβ-γδ+), different γδ T cell subsets are increased in CMV target organs. A concomitant decrease of viral load was observed in TCRα-/- mice which survived CMV infection, in contrast to CD3ε-/- mice which died and displayed damage to the lungs and liver. γδ T cell antiviral protective effect was also observed in the absence of NK, αβ T and B cells, showing the crucial role that these cells could play in immunodeficient contexts where other immune players are compromised.We showed the ability of CMV to inhibit the growth of subcutaneous colonic tumors (MC38) and melanomas (B16F10) in immunodeficient mice, thus revealing an anti-tumor role of CMV independently of immunity and γδ T cells. CMV was able to infect these tumor cell lines in accordance with a direct anti-tumor effect of the virus, through apoptosis (B16F10) or by means of a still unresolved mechanism. Finally, CMV also inhibits the growth of human colonic tumors, leading to the hypothesis that a viral-mediated indirect anti-tumor effect could also operate.

A T helper cell clone, referred to as clone 9, was derived from an allogeneic mixed lymphocyte culture. Clone 9, as well as supernatant factor(s) derived from it, could help the cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) responses of H-2 Db (Db) responder cells to alloantigens, or they could help the CTL responses of non- Db responder cells to Db alloantigens. Clone 9 cells or their factor(s) were active only when added during the first 24 hours of a five-day culture period. Clone 9 or its factor(s) could also synergize with interleukin-2 (IL-2)-containing medium in mounting cytotoxic responses to alloantigens. The helper activity in clone 9 supernatant was not due to IL-2 and it was specifically absorbed out by Db -spleen cells. The characterization of the Db -specific helper factor(ASHF) was facilitated by the isolation of a T hybridoma clone (clone 25), obtained from fusion of clone 9 cells with the T cell lymphoma, BW5147, and a B cell hybridoma that produced an IgM monoclonal antibody (clone 30 IgM) which bound ASHF. An additional monoclonal antibody (F23.1), which recognizes a determinant of the Vβ8 family of the T cell receptor, was also particularly useful for the characterization of ASHF. Analysis with these reagents showed that both clone 30 IgM and F23.1 immunoadsorbents could retain ASHF activity. Preabsorption of the ASHF with Db spleen cells prior to affinity purification over a clone 30 IgM column resulted in the absorption of Db-specific helper activity as well as the loss of a 50,000 molecular weight (MW) band on SDS-PAGE under reducing conditions. Furthermore, affinity purification of ASHF over the F23.1 immunoadsorbent, but not an irrelevant monoclonal antibody (mAb) column, also yielded a 50,000 MW molecule. Taken together, these findings suggest that the 50,000 MW molecule is a component of the ASHF and it is intimately related to the B chain of the T-cell receptor. The mode of action of clone 9 and its products in the induction bfCTL responses was also investigated. It was found that clone 9 and ASHF could help CTL responses by inducing IL-2 production in B6-stimulated cultures. In addition to ASHF, clone 9 cells also produced an additional factor(s) which participated in the induction of CTL responses. This additional factor(s) was referred to as IL-X. IL-X synergized with excess human recombinant IL-2 in the activation of CTL precursors (CTL-P) in the absence of antigenic stimulation. A model which involves the participation of ASHF, T helper cells, IL-2 and IL-X in the induction of CTL responses is proposed. / Science, Faculty of / Microbiology and Immunology, Department of / Graduate

T cell surface antigens are thought to play significant roles in immunological functions. They are involved in cellular interactions and T cell activation and proliferation. Characterization of T cell antigens is important in understanding the molecular machanisms underlying immune responses. The subject of this thesis is to characterize a novel murine T cell surface antigen called YE1/48. YE1/48, defined by two rat monoclonal antibodies YE1/48.10.6 and YE1/32.8.5, is a dimeric glycoprotein with molecular size and charge resembling the murine T cell antigen receptor α/β. It was initially detected at high levels on two T cell lymphomas, EL-4 and MBL-2. In my thesis studies, the YE1/48 antigen was characterized biochemically, a cDNA clone was isolated, and its expression in lymphoid cell populations was determined. The YE1/48 antigen was found to be distinct from the T cell receptor based on direct comparisons of their primary sequences as well as immunological analyses. It is likely a homodimer with similar or identical subunits. No homology with any known proteins could be detected, including the human T cell activation antigen CD28 (T44) which also has a similar dimeric structure as YE1/48. No function of the YE1/48 antigen could be derived from its primary sequence or with the use of the two monoclonal antibodies because the antibodies do not appear to bind to the surface of intact normal T lymphocytes. Some intriguing characteristics of the YE1/48 antigen were observed in the current studies. The YE1/48 antigen belongs to a rare group of type II membrane proteins with orientation of the amino-terminus inside the cell and the carboxy-terminus outside. The YE1/48 gene may have two alleles among different mouse strains and may belong to a multigene family. YE1/48 is expressed at low levels on a wide range of T cells with no restriction to their differentiation stages, and on spleen B cells as well as bone marrow cells. Its expression on lymphocytes is not related to activation or proliferation. However, YE1/48 expression appears to be induced at high levels by Abelson Murine Leukemia Virus-transformation of pre-B cells. Moreover, the epitopes defined by the YE1/48.10.6 and YE1.32.8.5 antibodies seem to be exposed only on three T lymphomas but not on normal T cells. It is thus tantalizing to speculate a correlation of the high level expression of YE1/48 antigen and its epitope exposure on transformed lymphocytes with cellular transformation. In summary, YE1/48 was found to be a novel T cell surface antigen which has similar dimeric structure as the murine T cell receptor α/β and human CD28 (T44). It has now been characterized biochemically, molecularly cloned, and its expression on lymphoid cells has been determined. Although the function of YE1/48 antigen remains unknown, a number of intriguing characteristics observed in the current studies have certainly called for further studies on the antigen and the determination of its function. / Science, Faculty of / Microbiology and Immunology, Department of / Graduate

La grande originalité de mon projet réside dans la génération de cellules stromales mésenchymateuses (MSCs) à partir de cellules souches pluripotentes induites humaines (iPS). Je rappellerai les propriétés phénotypiques, de multipotence et immunosuppressives des MSCs et m’attarderai sur leurs différents mécanismes immunomodulateurs. Cependant, leur nombre limité et leur isolation difficile limitent leur utilisation thérapeutique nécessitant une autre source de cellules.Mon travail a donc été de générer et de caractériser des MSCs issues d’iPS (huiPS-MSCs). L'avantage des huiPS-MSCs réside dans leur plus grande disponibilité et la possibilité d'en avoir à volonté. Encore faut-il valider l’intérêt thérapeutique potentiel de ces huiPS-MSCs. Premièrement, mes résultats in vitro montrent que les huiPS-MSCs présentent une activité immunosuppressive sur les lymphocytes T (LT) activés conduisant à une induction de LT régulateurs FoxP3+ fonctionnels. Deuxièmement, dans une approche plus axée sur la thérapie, j’ai analysé in vivo l’activité́ immunosuppressive des huiPS-MSCs dans un modèle de réaction xénogénique de greffon contre l'hôte (souris immunodéficientes NSG injectées avec des LT humains). Je montre clairement, après traitement avec les huiPS-MSCs, une réduction de la proportion de LT humains producteurs de cytokines inflammatoires (IFNγ et TNFα) typiques de la pathologie et l’apparition concomitante de LT présentant un phénotype régulateur (production d’IL10 et expression de FoxP3). La fin de mon travail a été de caractériser moléculairement la régulation de l’expression de PD-L1, une molécule immuno-régulatrice puissante, entre les MSCs issues de la moelle osseuse (BM-MSCs) de donneurs sains et nos huiPS- MSCs. Les huiPS-MSCs ont une expression constitutive de PD-L1, qui est absente sur les BM-MSCs. J’ai analysé les microARNs susceptibles de limiter l’expression de PD-L1, j’ai pu en identifier plusieurs. En mesurant leur expression dans les différentes MSCs à notre disposition, je montre que cette expression est inverse par rapport à celle de PD-L1. J’ai ainsi pu démontrer l’activité immunosuppressive de nos huiPS-MSCs in vitro et in vivo avec une perspective d’induction de tolérance immune, et caractériser la régulation de l’expression de PD-L1, molécule immunosuppressive exprimée par les huiPS-MSCs. / The mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) present many features that render attractive as therapeutic cells. Their phenotype, multipotency and immunosuppressive properties are well described. Nevertheless, major restriction for their clinical use is due to the limited in vitro expansion and low quantity of cells that can be collected from adult tissues. The originality of my project consisted in the generation of mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) from human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS). These huiPS-MSCs could fulfill some of the specification required to improve MSCs use in therapeutic approaches: welldefined and unlimited number of cells with reproducible functional characteristics. In a first approach, I characterized the huiPS-MSCs generated in the laboratory. My results highlight the immunosuppressive activity in vitro of the huiPS-MSCs on T-cell stimulation that induces a switch in T-cell cytokine polarization toward the generation of Treg cells. Secondly, in a more therapy-oriented approach, I analyzed in vivo immunosuppressive activity of huiPS-MSCs in a xenogeneic graft versus host model (NSG immunodeficient mice injected with human T lymphocytes). My data showed significantly reduced percentages of human-differentiated T cells producing Th1 inflammatory cytokines (IFNγ and TNFα). By contrast, T cells producing IL-10 and FoxP3+ Treg cells, absent in nontreated animals, were detected in huiPS-MSCs treated mice, confirming the in vitro results of a tolerizing process. The end of my work was to characterize the molecular regulation of the expression of PDL1, an immunoregulatory molecule expressed by the MSCs. Comparing bone marrow MSCs (BM-MSCs) from healthy donors and our huiPS-MSCs, I showed that the huiPSMSCs have a constitutive expression of PD-L1, which is absent on BM-MSCs. Analysing microRNAs that could limit the expression of PD-L1, I could identify several microRNAs which expression is inverse to the expression of PD-L1. For the first time, my results highlight the immunosuppressive activity of huiPS-MSCs on human T-cell stimulation with a concomitant generation of human Treg cells in vivo and characterize the regulation of PD-L1 expression, an immunosuppressive molecule expressed by the MSCs. They may favor the development of new tools and strategies based on the use of huiPS cells and their derivatives for the induction of immune tolerance.

GB virus C (GBV-C) is a lymphotropic human virus which was recently assigned to a new genus Pegivirus within the Flaviviridae family. GBV-C infection is found worldwide, and viremia prevalence is about 1% to 4% in healthy blood donors and up to 42% in HIV-infected individuals. In clinical studies, GBV-C coinfection is associated with prolonged survival of HIV-infected individuals. GBV-C infection modestly alters T cell homeostasis in vivo through various mechanisms, including modulation of chemokine and cytokine release and receptor expression, and by diminution of T cell activation, proliferation and apoptosis, all of which may contribute to improved HIV clinical outcomes. This thesis explores the interrelationship between GBV-C infection and immunoactivation and identifies potential mechanisms by which GBV-C reduces immunoactivation. Chronic HIV infection is associated with persistent immunoactivation which contributes to the immune dysfunction. In particular, T cell activation supports HIV replication and correlates with HIV viral load (VL). Persistent immunoactivation also contributes to the depletion of uninfected bystander cells by mechanisms of activation induced cell death (AICD). Although treatment with combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) reduces HIV VL, T cell activation does not return to levels found in HIVuninfected individuals. Sustained immunoactivation is also associated with lower virological response to cART suggesting therapies to reduce immunoactivation in combination with cART may benefit HIV-infected individuals. Since GBV-C infection is associated with reduced immunoactivation, understanding mechanisms by which GBV-C modulates these signaling pathways may provide insights into novel approaches to treat HIV infection and chronic immunoactivation. The effect of GBV-C infection on T cell activation and IL-2 signaling pathways were studied in a cohort of HIV-positive individuals. GBV-C viremic HIV positive individuals on cART have reduced T cell activation which was significantly associated with higher percentage of immunomodulatory CD3 +CD4-CD8-T cells. Ex vivo GBV-C infection was associated with reduced lymphocyte proliferation in response to IL-2, lower frequency of reactivation of latent HIV and protection against AICD. In vitro expression of GBV-C envelope glycoprotein E2 in CD4+ T cell lines inhibited T cell receptor (TCR) induced IL-2 secretion and inhibited IL-2 signaling pathways. This effect was mediated at least in part by reducing activation of lymphocyte specific tyrosine kinase (Lck). Through deletion mutagenesis, the inhibitory motif within the viral protein was mapped to a region that contains a predicted Lck substrate, a highly conserved tyrosine at position 87 (Y87). Lck phosphorylated GBV-C E2 protein in vitro and mutation of Y87 residue abolished the inhibitory effects of E2 protein. Synthetic peptides containing this inhibitory motif competed for Lck phosphorylation and inhibited TCR signaling in primary human T cells. The number of GBV-C infected T cells was found to be low in vivo, yet GBV-C infection reduced global TCR signaling. GBV-C RNA and E2 protein were detected in extracellular microvesicles purified from GBV-C infected human serum or the culture supernatant of E2 expressing cells, and these microvesicles inhibited TCR signaling in uninfected bystander T cells. Together, these data identify a novel mechanism by which GBV-C infection leads to global reduction in T cell activation and IL-2 signaling in the infected host, and provide a working model in which the viral envelope glycoprotein serves as a substrate for Lck and competes for Lck phosphorylation in the infected T cells and in uninfected bystander T cells.

Les cellules dendritiques (DC) sont les cellules professionnelles de la capture et de la présentation antigènique et font l'interface entre l'immunité innée et l'immunité adaptative. Suite à la reconnaissance de divers signaux de dangers (PAMP/DAMP), les DC s'activent et dégradent l'antigène afin de le présenter aux LT naïfs dans les organes lymphoïdes secondaires et ainsi initient une réponse immunitaire immunogène ou tolérogène. Le contrôle de la réponse immunitaire est notamment possible grâce aux lymphocytes T régulateurs. Il en existe deux types : les nTreg qui se différencient dans le thymus et les pTreg qui se différencient dans les organes lymphoïdes secondaires et/ou dans les tissus. Les DC sont indispensables à leur activation et à leur différenciation respectivement. Les Treg possédent un arsenal variés de mécanismes qui leur conférent leur fonction régulatrice : sécrétion de cytokines immunosuppressives (IL-10, TGF-β et IL-35), activité cytotoxique, déprivation de l'environnement en IL-2….Selon la nature des réponses lymphocytaires T CD4 qu'elles induisent, les DC peuvent être classées fonctionnellement en DC activatrices/immunogènes (DCact) versus DC tolérogènes (DCreg). Les DCact sont définies par leur capacité à induire des lymphocytes T CD4 effecteurs et CD8 cytotoxiques. Les DCreg sont caractérisées par leur capacité à induire des Treg qui vont contrôler la réponse immunitaire. Ces DCreg peuvent être induites par des cytokines (IL-10 et TGF- β produites par exemple par certains Treg), sous l'effet sous l'effet de vitamines anti-oxydantes ou de la vitamine D3, de l'acide rétinoïque, par traitement aux glucocorticoïdes (GC) ou encore sous l'effet de facteurs produits par des pathogènes comme la toxine cholérique. Durant mes travaux de thèse je me suis intéressé aux conséquences physiologiques de l'expression de la protéine Glucocorticoid-Induced Leucine Zipper dans les DC. En effet, les DC humaines et murines surexpriment cette protéine sous l'effet des GC, de l'IL-10, du TGF-β, de la mitomycin C, de la rapamycine, de la vitamine D3 et enfin de l'environnement tumoral. Sur des DC dérivées de monocytes, ils avait été montré que GILZ est nécessaire et suffisant pour induire un phénotype (diminution de l'expression membranaire de CD40, CD80, CD86, CMH-II et augmentation de PD-L1 et ILT-3) et une fonction (sécrétion d'IL-10 et diminution de la production de CCL3, CCL5 et CXCL8) tolérogènes chez ces cellules. De plus, les DC GILZhi sécrètent de l'IL-10 et induisent la différenciation de Treg CTLA-4+IL-10+, spécifiques de l'antigène, dont certains expriment le facteur de transcription FoxP3 et qui inhibent la prolifération de LT CD4 autologues. Mes travaux ont pour finalité d'évaluer l'importance physiologique de l'expression de GILZ par les DC in vivo, et en particulier sa contribution à l'induction et au maintien de la tolérance immunologique à l'homéostasie ou dans un contexte pathologique. Pour atteindre ces objectifs, je disposais de deux modèles de souris complémentaires, créés au laboratoire, les souris CD11c-GILZhi, surexprimant GILZ spécifiquement dans les DC, et les souris CD11c-GILZko, conditionnellement déficientes pour GILZ dans leurs DC. Les travaux que j'ai effectués jusqu'à présent ont permis d'établir que la surexpression de GILZ dans les DC leur confère un phénotype tolérogène in vivo (faible expression des molécules de CMH II et production d'IL-10) et est suffisante pour induire une accumulation de Treg à l'homéostasie et une expansion de nTreg suite à une stimulation antigénique. De plus, L'absence de GILZ dans les DC leur confère une capacité de capture antigènique par macropinocytose accrue. In vivo, cet accroissement de la capture est sélectif et ne touche que les DC CD8α+.Finement régulée par des signaux antigéniques, biologiques ou chimiques, GILZ est un puissant régulateur de la balance immunogénicité/tolérogénicité dans les fonctions de la DC. / Dendritic cells (DC) are professionnal antigen-presenting cells and interface between innate immunity and adaptative immunity. After danger signals recognition, DC activate and process antigen to present to naive T cells in the secondary lymphoid organs (SLO) and thus, initiate the immune response, immunogenic or tolerogenic. Control of immunitary response is possible by regulatory T cells (Treg). There are two types of Treg : nTreg that differenciate in the thymus, and pTre that differenciate in SLO and/or in tissues. DC are essential for their activation or their differenciation respectively. Treg possess a large arsenal of regulatory mechanisms : cytokines secretion (IL-10, TGF-B and IL-35), cytotoxic activity, IL-2 environnement deprivation…According to theT CD4 lymphocytary responses, DC are functionnaly classified in activator/immunogenic DC (DCact) versus tolerogenic DC (DCreg). DCact induce effector CD4 T cells and cytotoxic CD8 T cells. DCreg induce Treg controlling the immune response. DCreg can be induce by cytokines (IL-10 and TGF-B produce by Treg for example), by anti-oxidant vitamin or vitamin D3, by retinoic acid, by glucocorticoid (GC) treatment and by various product of pathogens. During my thesis work, I focused on the physiological consequences of GILZ expression in DC. Human and murin DC overexpress GILZ after GC treatment and after treatment with IL-10, TGF-B, mitomicyn C, rapamycin, vitamin D3 and under the influence of the tumoral microenvironnement. On monocytes derived-DC, it has been demonstrated that GILZ is necessary and sufficient to induce a tolerogen phenotype (decrease of CD40, CD80, CD86, MHC-II expression and increase of PD-L1 and ILT-3 expression) and functionnality (IL-1à secretion and decrease of CCL3, CCL5 and CXCL8 production). So, GILZhi DC induce the differenciation of antigen-specific CTLA-4+IL-10+ Treg whose a part express FoxP3 and inhibit the proliferation of CD4 autologous T cells. My work evaluate the physiological importance of GILZ expression by DC in vivo, and more particularlythe contribution of this expression on the induction and the support of the immune tolerance at homeostasis and in pathologic context. To reach my objectives, I haved two complementary murin models, created in the laboratory : the CD11c-GILZhi mice, overexpress GILZ specifically in the DC, and the CD11c-GILZko mice, deficient for GILZ expression in mice. Studies I have done show that overexpression of GILZ in vivo in DC induce a tolerogenic phenotype in these cells (decrease of MHC-II expression and IL-10 production) and is sufficient to induce accumulation of Treg at homeostasis and expansion of nTreg after antigenic stimulation. Thus, lack of GILZ in DC increase their macropinocytic antigen uptake capacity. In vivo, this increase is selective of CD8a+ DC. Being strongly regulated by antigen, biologic or chemicals signals, these work show GILZ like a powerful regulator of the immunogenecity/tolerogenicity balance in the DC functionnalities.

Les lymphocytes T (LT) jouent un rôle clé dans la mise en place d’une réponse immunitaire efficace. De part des besoins énergétiques et biosynthétiques distincts, leur activation, leur prolifération et leur différenciation fonctionnelle requièrent un contrôle métabolique très fin. La kinase mTOR est apparue comme un régulateur important de la biologie des LT. En effet, cette kinase contrôle le métabolisme et permet une augmentation de la synthèse d’énergie notamment par une augmentation de la glycolyse, indispensable à l’activation des LT. mTOR détecte la disponibilité des nutriments (ex. les acides aminés et le glucose) ainsi que les facteurs de croissance, puis intègre de tels signaux pour réguler le métabolisme des LT. Un rôle clé des acides aminés dans la réponse des LT a été mis en évidence. La petite protéine-G RagA joue un rôle clé dans la détection du glucose et des acides aminés ramifiés, requise pour l’activation de mTOR dans le complexe mTORC1, impliqué dans le contrôle du métabolisme. Afin d’appréhender l’influence du microenvironnement métabolique sur l’activation, la prolifération et la polarisation des LT auxiliaires, nous avons généré et analysé des souris avec des mutations de RagA dans les LT. Les souris mutantes ne présentent aucun signe macroscopique de perturbations du système immunitaire tel que des pathologies autoimmunes ou le développement de tumeurs. Le développement des LT dans le thymus est globalement normal, même si l’on peut observer une légère diminution du développement des LT régulateurs. En périphérie, l’homéostasie immunitaire ne semble pas altérée mis à part une légère diminution du pourcentage de LT mémoires. Nous avons constaté que la perte de RagA entraîne une diminution substantielle de l’activité de mTORC1 observée après activation des LT mais, de façon inattendue, pas une abolition totale. A l’inverse, nous avons observé une augmentation de l’activité de mTORC2 dans les cellules KO. De façon plus surprenante, nous avons mis en évidence que, très rapidement après la délétion de RagA dans le thymus, une faible activité basale de mTORC1 se met en place. Précocement après activation, les LT RagA KO ne présentent pas de problème de survie, cependant ils prolifèrent moins rapidement, ce qui est vraisemblablement dû à un apport d’énergie plus faible par glycolyse. Nous avons constaté que des LT RagA-KO activés in vitro dans des conditions « neutres » expriment spontanément des niveaux plus élevés de T-bet, facteur de transcription « maître » des lymphocytes T auxiliaires de type I (Th1). Aussi suite à une activation des LT en condition polarisante Th1, nous avons observé davantage de cellules RagA-KO que WT produisant de l’interféron-γ. Ces résultats montrent que l’activité de RagA, et par conséquent vraisemblablement de mTORC1, inhibe la différenciation Th1. Nous avons pu constater que les LT RagA-KO favorisent la différenciation Th1 au moins en partie par des mécanismes intrinsèques et extrinsèques. De plus, nous observons une activité tardive de mTORC1 dans les LT RagA-KO. Nous émettons l’hypothèse que RagA inhibe l’activité tardive de mTORC1 et que cette activité tardive permet une meilleure différenciation en Th1. En conclusion, nos résultats montrent que l’absence de la GTPase RagA dans les LT diminue l’activité de mTORC1 sans l’abolir totalement. De façon importante et surprenante, nous démontrons que malgré la baisse d’activité de mTORC1 en absence de RagA, la différenciation en lymphocytes Th1 est augmentée. Ainsi, la GTPase RagA semble avoir un rôle inhibiteur de la différenciation en Th1 potentiellement en inhibant une activité à long terme de mTORC1. / T lymphocytes play a key role in the development of an effective immune response. Because of their distinct energy and biosynthetic needs, their activation, proliferation and functional differentiation require very fine metabolic control. The mTOR kinase has emerged as an important regulator of the biology of helper T cells. Indeed, this kinase controls the metabolism and allows an increase in the synthesis of energy in particular by an increase in glycolysis, essential for the activation of T cells. mTOR detects the availability of nutrients, such as amino acids, glucose and growth factors, and then integrates such signals to regulate T cell metabolism. Studies have shown a key role of amino acids in the response of T cells. The small RagA-G protein plays a key role in the detection of glucose and branched amino acids required for the activation of mTOR in the mTORC1 complex involved in metabolic control. In order to understand the influence of the metabolic microenvironment on the activation, proliferation and polarization of helper T cells we generated and analyzed mice with mutations of RagA in T cells. Mutant mice show no signs of immune system disturbances such as autoimmune pathologies or tumor development. T cell development in the thymus is g normal even though a slight decrease in the development of regulatory T cells can be observed. In the periphery, immune homeostasis does not seem to be altered except for a slight decrease in the percentage of memory T cells.We found that the loss of RagA results in a substantial decrease in mTORC1 activity after T cell activation but unexpectedly not complete abolition. Conversely, we observed an increase in mTORC2 activity in KO cells. More surprisingly, we have shown that, very soon after the deletion of RagA in the thymus, a low basal activity of mTORC1 takes place. Early after activation, RagA KO T cells did not present a survival problem, however they proliferated less rapidly, which is probably due to a lower energy intake by glycolysis. We have found that RagA KO T cells activated in vitro under "neutral" conditions spontaneously express higher levels of T-bet, the "master regulator" transcription factor of type I (Th1) helper T cells. Therefore, following activation of T cells in polarizing condition Th1, we observed more RagA KO cells than wt producing interferon-γ. These results show that the activity of RagA, and therefore presumably of mTORC1, inhibits Th1 differentiation. We have seen that RagA KO cells favor Th1 differentiation by intrinsic and extrinsic mechanisms. We hypothesize that IFN-γ, more produced by RagA-KO cells, is involved. In addition, we observed a late activity of mTORC1 in RagA-KO LT. We hypothesize that RagA inhibits the late activity of mTORC1 and that this late activity allows better Th1 differentiation. In conclusion, our results show that the absence of RagA GTPase in T cells decreases the activity of mTORC1 without completely abolishing it. Significantly and surprisingly, we demonstrate that despite the decrease in mTORC1 activity, Th1 cell differentiation is increased in the absence of RagA. Thus, RagA GTPase appears to have an inhibitory role in Th1 differentiation potentially by inhibiting a long-term activity of mTORC1.

The relationship among eosinophils, lysophospholipase activity and the immune response in animals infected with Trichinella spiralis was studied using in vivo and in vitro techniques. In an in vivo experiment, anti-thymocyte serum (ATS) was administered to mice infected with T. spiralis and its effects on intestinal lysophospholipase (EC 3.1.1.5.) activity, peripheral blood, bone marrow and intestinal eosinophilia were measured in the same experimental animal. The ATS caused a significant temporally related suppression of both the tissue lysophospholipase response and eosinophilia, in all three compartments. These findings support the hypothesis that parasite-induced eosinophilia is the cause of the increased lysophospholipase activity of parasitized tissue and that the responses are thymus cell-dependent. In vitro experiments demonstrated that the eosinophil was the primary inflammatory cell source of lysophospholipase among eosinophils, neutrophils macrophages and lymphocytes. The role of other cells and antigen in the production of the enzyme by the eosinophil was also investigated in vitro• Results demonstrated that eosinophils cultured with both T. spiralis antigen and other leukocytes yielded enzyme activities significantly greater than eosinophils cultured alone or with only antigen. More specific experiments showed that T-lymphocytes were the cells responsible for influencing the eosinophils' lysophospholipase activity in the presence of antigen, and that their influence was enhanced by the presence of macrophages. These results suggested that increased lysophospholipase activity present in parasitized tissue was not only due to increased numbers of eosinophils infiltrating parasitized tissue but was also due to each eosinophil synthesizing more of the enzyme. The necessity for antigen and other cells suggests a role for cell cooperation in the production of the enzyme, specifically T-lymphocytes and macrophage interaction with the eosinophil. A lymphocyte soluble factor collected from sensitized lymphocytes stimulated with specific antigen or concanavalin A was found to enhance the eosinophil lysophospholipase activity when added to cultures of eosinophils plus other peritoneal cells. The soluble factor did not stimulate the lysophospholipase activity of pure cultures of eosinophils.

Hematopoietic cells exploit the multistep paradigm of cell migration to ultimately enable them to perform their function. This process is dictated by the ability of adhesion molecules on the circulating hematopoietic cells to find their counter-receptors on endothelial cells. Of those molecules, the selectin family and their respective ligands induce the initial transient interactions between circulating cells and the opposing endothelium. In this thesis, I focused on studying E-selectin mediated cellular migration in two hematopoietic cell types, namely human hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) and human T-lymphocytes. HSPCs derived from pluripotent sources theoretically offers a novel, unlimited source for hematopoietic stem cell transplantation therapy. In vitro pluripotent stem cell derived- hematopoietic stem/progenitor cells (ES/iPS-HSPCs) behave much like somatic HSPCs in that they exhibit clonal expansion and multilineage hematopoietic capacity. However, unlike somatic sources, ES/iPS-HSPCs do not give rise to effective hematopoietic repopulation, which may be due to insufficient HSPCs homing to the bone marrow. HSPCs exploit E- and P-selectin to home and engraft into bone marrow niches. Thus, one of my objectives in this thesis was to study the expression of E-selectin ligands associated with ES/iPS-HSPCs. I showed that ES/iPS-HSPCs lack functional E-selectin ligand(s). In an effort to enhance the interaction between Eselectin and ES/iPS-HSPCs, we decorated the cell surface with sialyl-Lewis x (sLex) using the ex-vivo glycan engineering technology. However, this decoration did not improve the engraftment capacity of ES/iPS-HSPCs, in vivo. Induction of E-selectin expression during inflammation is key to recruitment of immune cells and therefore I also focused on analyzing the expression of E-selectin ligands on activated human T-cells. I identified several novel glycoproteins that may function as E-selectin ligands. Specifically, I compared the role of the known E-selectin ligands, namely PSGL-1 and CD43, to CD44. I showed that CD44 purified from in vitro human activated T-cells or from psoriasis patients acts as a functional E-selectin ligand. Furthermore, our knock-down studies demonstrated that CD44, and not CD43, cooperates with P-selectin glycoprotein ligand-1 (PSGL-1) as a major E-selectin ligand.

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(医学) / 甲第22727号 / 医博第4645号 / 新制||医||1045(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院医学研究科医学専攻 / (主査)教授 濵﨑 洋子, 教授 羽賀 博典, 教授 伊藤 貴浩 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Medical Science / Kyoto University / DFAM