Summary: Although a good deal of information is available about the Maoris of New Zealand, concerning their origin, customs, and culture, yet statistical data regarding their actual numbers at any time before 1857 are comparatively rare. It is a fact that the Maori population in any given locality was a fluctuating one and that their distribution in general was very variable and this constitutes a formidable difficulty in making any estimate of their numbers before the first cenus. A second obstacle is the difficulty of travel which faced the early European explorers. For example, when Cook visited New Zealand, he made an estimate of the population but it was largely conjectural as Cook saw the natives at only those places he touched around the coast, and had in fact no means of estimating what proportion of the total population those communities formed. Actually the Maoris were not confined to the coastline, and therefore Cook�s estimate cannot be regarded as based on adequate data. An evaluation of his estimate will be made later--Chapter 1.

In the northern South Island, the area northern Te Wai Pounamu (NTWP) is defined appropriate to a regional investigation of pre-European culture change. It is argued that the Maori sequence of this region is relevant to a range of interpretative problems in New Zealand�s archaeological past. Preparatory to this investigation, the international and New Zealand literature on culture change is reviewed. Two primary investigative foci of change are identified in NTWP; subsistence economy and stone tool manufacturing technology. A chronological scheme of Early, Middle and Late Periods based on firmly dated ecological events and/or independent radiocarbon ages is defined so as to order the archaeological data without recourse to unproven scenarios of cultural change and association. The Early Period subsistence economy is assessed in some detail. An Early Period settlement focus is documented along the eastern Tasman Bay coast in proximity to meta-argillite sources. Early Period midden remains suggest that several genera of seal and moa were exploited, and that people were fishing in eastern Tasman Bay during the warmer months of the year. From the Early Period fishhook assemblages of Tasman Bay, manufacturing change is inferred related to the increasing scarcity of moa bone over time. It is argued that lower Early Period settlement of the larger northern South Island was focused on the north-eastern coast to Rangitoto (D�Urville Island), while NTWP was characterized by smaller stone working communities operating in summer. In contrast, moa-free middens in Awaroa Inlet and Bark Bay of the western Tasman Bay granite coast present a physical dominance of Paphies australis, and finfish species suggesting, along with the dearth of Austrovenus stutchburyi, occupation outside of the warmer summer months. These middens also present an absence of seal and a paucity of bird bone, while sharing a robust 15th-16th centuries AD radiocarbon chronology. With the dearth of all bird species from granite coast middens in general, and evidence that the less preferred kokako (Callaeas c. cinerea) was caught during the occupation of Awaroa Inlet N26/214, it is suggested that cultural regulations beyond immediate subsistence needs were also operating at this time. From southern Tasman Bay, the archaeological investigation of the important Appleby site N27/118 suggests that the people associated with the extensive horticultural soils of Waimea West otherwise consumed finfish and estuarine shellfish in (non-summer) season, kiore (Rattus exulans), dog or kuri (Canis familiaris), and several small evidence of Maori tradition, archaeological charcoal, and the approximately 16th century radiocarbon chronology for N27/118 and the associated Appleby gravel borrow pit N27/122 places the advent of extensive Waimea horticulture within the post-moa, lower Middle Period Maori economy. The Haulashore Island archaeological assemblage of south-eastern Tasman Bay with a similar material culture to Appleby is also bereft of seal and any diagnostic moa bone. This Middle Period evidence is considered in a larger comparative perspective, where the absence of seal from 15th-16th centuries Tasman Bay middens is interpreted as a factor of human predation. A secure radiocarbon chronology suggests the convergence of this loss with the diminishment and loss of selected avifauna, and the subsequent advent of large horticultural complexes in the northern South Island compensated for the loss of faunal calories in a seasonally economy and a managed ecology. The evidence of stone tool use is also reviewed in some detail for NTWP, following the definition of an adze typology appropriate to the classification of meta-argillite tools. It is clear that meta-argillite is the dominant material of adze and (non-adze) flake tool manufacture throughout the Maori sequence of NTWP, while granite coast quartz remains generally subdominant. Beyound the apparent loss of the laterally-hafted adze, the evidence of adze change is generally subdominant. Beyond the apparent loss of the laterally-hafted adze, the evidence of adze change is generally reflected in shifting typological proportions, and in new manufacturing technologies and dressing techniques. Functional change may be inferred in the loss over time of large meta-argillite points and blade tools associated respectively with the manufacture of one-piece moa bone fishhooks and moa and seal butchery. The exclusive identification of hammer-dressed adzes with hump backs and steep bevels in Middle Period assemblages is related to the advent of horticultural intensification. More generally, adzes of the upper Early and Middle Periods are increasingly characterized by round sections, while hammer-dressing is employed more frequently and extensively reduced from riverine meta-argillite and recycled banks. Collectively, these changes reflect a developing emphasis on economy and opportunistic exploitation. From this interpretation, and evidence that meta-argillite adze length and the size of high quality Ohana source flakes diminish over time, it is suggested that accessible, high quality and appropriately shaped meta-argillite rock became increasingly scarce through intensive quarry manufacture. In conclusion, the coincidence of diminishing rock and faunal resources over time is related in a speculative anthropological model of culture change. It is proposed that the 14th-16th centuries Maori economy of NTWP, and by implication and inference, many other regions of New Zealand, was characterized by a resource crisis which either precipitated or reinforced a broader trajectory of culture change. It is suggested that influential leadears perceived a linkage in the loss of high quality rock and important subsistence fauna at this time, and that distinctive technologies, institutions and ideologies of Middle Period Maori society were influenced by, and/or developed from, this perception. Finally, it is recommended that the data of an archaeological Maori culture sequence be ordered and tested within a radiocarbon based chronological scheme, rather than the still generally used model of �Archaic� and �Classic� cultural periods. It is also suggested that New Zealand archaeologists should look beyond the functional-ecological imperative to consider more holistic anthropological explanations of change in the pre-European Maori past, with a focus on integrated regional sequences.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Melbourne, Faculty of Arts, 2003. / Typescript (photocopy). Includes bibliographical references (leaves 314-353).

Thesis (M.A.)--University of Hong Kong, 1985. / Also available in print.

Inaug.-diss.--Leipzig. / Vita.

Thesis--Amsterdam. / Includes stellingen. Includes bibliographical references (p. [126]).

The UK has adopted the concept of sustainable development and the construction industry is playing a key role in improving the efficient use of materials. The aim is to minimise the waste generated and maximise quantities of materials reused or recycled, minimising raw material consumption. Using Reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) is a rehabilitation technique which involves recycling materials from asphalt layers that have already been in service. This reduces the use of new bitumen and aggregates and avoids disposal. However, UK pavements constructed prior to 1980 or surfaced in the late 1980’s may contain tar, a carcinogenic substance that cannot be reheated and, therefore, cannot be recycled into hot mix asphalt (HMA). Recycling these pavements into unbound materials is also prohibited; consequently, disposal or cold recycling are the two available options. Cold recycling of asphalt is a proven technique that reduces material disposal and raw material and energy consumption. The reduction in energy consumption is largely achieved by avoiding aggregate drying and mixing of the material at ambient temperature. In this sense, using cold recycled bound materials (CRBMs) becomes the most economic and sustainable option. However, despite the increasingly common use of CRBM in roads, the specifications for the use of these materials in airfields are under-developed and there is no guidance to ensure that pavement design with these materials is trustworthy. This is the reason why this Thesis focuses on airfield pavement design with CRBM. The aim of this investigation is to develop a design methodology to use CRBMs in airfield pavements. For this purpose, the objectives were to review past experience on performance of these materials, measure and analyse the effect of key variables on performance to establish material limitations and develop a design methodology, proposing design guidance for airport authorities and practitioners. To achieve the project aims and objectives, a literature review was carried out focusing on pavement engineering, airfield pavement design and CRBM. The objective was to gain sufficient knowledge on key areas to conduct the research. Based on this literature review it was decided to use foamed bitumen as the cold technology and Kenlayer as pavement analytical design software. It was also found that the current design methodology for using CRBM in airfields is to conservatively equate material properties to those of a HMA commonly used in airfield base course (HDM50). Therefore, this practise should be analysed to decide if it is correct or if it can be improved. Subsequently, a laboratory programme was established to analyse CRBM mechanical properties and, therefore, understand the material’s behaviour and performance under cyclic loading. RAP, fly ash, cement and foamed bitumen were used to manufacture laboratory specimens, compacted with a gyratory compactor. These specimens were tested to analyse densities, air voids, stiffness, strength, permanent deformation and fatigue. For developing a new design methodology, Kenlayer was used to analyse strains and stresses within the airfield pavement. The first step was to ascertain Kenlayer adequacy and establish inputs related to loading, traffic and subgrade condition. For this purpose, 96 case studies were analysed with HMA, with different aircraft types, traffic and subgrade conditions. These cases were compared to those of a well-established airfield design guide, namely DMG 27. Then the software could be used to model pavements containing CRBM and with the knowledge gained in the laboratory about its behaviour, establish layer thicknesses to bear traffic during the pavement design life. With the results obtained from the laboratory investigation it was concluded that CRBM mixes have acceptable properties for use in airfield pavements. Resistance to permanent deformation, fatigue, temperature susceptibility and durability results show that these materials give reasonable performance; however, they differ from conventional hot mixes. Thus, current practice can be improved, justifying the need for design guidance for using CRBM in airfields. As fatigue is one of the main failure modes in asphalt mixtures and flexible pavements, a deeper study into fatigue behaviour of CRBM was carried out using Indirect Tensile Fatigue Tests (ITFT) in strain control mode and Wheel Track Test (WTT). The results showed different failure mechanisms for CRBM from those of HMA; thus, a new failure criterion was established. In HMA the failure criterion of 50% stiffness reduction is related to the appearance of macro cracks. CRBM develops dispersed micro-cracking that lowers the mixture stiffness without producing macro cracks until late in the material’s life. Macro cracks only tend to appear at 70% stiffness reduction; therefore, this was established as new failure criterion for CRBM. Once CRBM properties were defined, the pavement structure could be modelled. The results obtained from HMA modelling showed that the software and the inputs selected were appropriate for this investigation. Then the HMA base properties were substituted with CRBM properties obtained in the laboratory. The results showed that DMG 27, Chart 7, can be used for designing airfield pavements using CRBM increasing the base thickness by 9%, with a minimum Dry Lean Concrete (DLC) layer of 150 mm. A deterioration analysis was also carried out with the design software. In this case the aim was to analyse how strains distribute within the CRBM layer and how this affects the pavement life. With these analysis, it was highlighted how different CRBM behaves compared to HMA. Strains distributed linearly within the HMA layer; however, this does not happen with the CRBM. Moreover, this analysis showed how fatigue data can be used to obtain a more accurate pavement life taking into account different strain levels. Nevertheless, the study carried out here is based on laboratory performance of one type of CRBM. There is need for further investigation to establish a relationship between fatigue behaviour in the laboratory and the field and confirm how micro cracking affects the bearing capacity of the CRBM layer, establishing shift factors to optimise CRBM layer thickness. Moreover, the laboratory study has been carried out analysing CRBM in the same way as HMA; therefore, further study is needed to analyse the adequacy of the testing methodology. Also, modelling has been done comparing one CRBM to one HMA, namely HDM50; therefore, further investigation is needed to open the model to other HMA. Consequently, the design guidance presented here is a first step towards an airfield pavement design guide and further study is needed to optimise it.

Several thousand people die as a result of a road accident each year in Great Britain and the trend in the number of fatal accidents is monitored closely to understand increases and reductions in the number of deaths. Results from analysis of these data directly influence Government road safety policy and ensure theintroduction of effective safety interventions across the country. Overall accident numbers are important, but when disaggregating into various characteristics, accident risk (defined as the number of accidents relative to an exposure measure) is a better comparator. The exposure measure used most commonly for accident rate analysis is traffic flow which can be disaggregated into vehicle types, road type, and year. Here we want to assess the accident risk across different car types and car ages, and therefore alternative exposure sources are required. We disaggregate exposure to a further extent than possible with currently available data in order to take the increased variability within these new factors into account. Exposure data sources are mainly based on sample surveys and therefore have some associated uncertainty, however previous accident risk analysis has not, in general, taken this into account. For an explicit way to include this uncertainty we use a Bayesian analysis to combine three sources of exposure using a log-Normal model with model priors representing our uncertainty in each data source. Using further Bayesian models, we propagate this uncertainty through to accident rates and accident severity, determining important factors and inter- relationships between factors to identify key features affecting accident trends,and we make the first exploration of the effect of the recent recession on road accidents.

This research was designed to investigate the properties of aggregate with a new cement coating applied, and to test the effect of including this aggregate in a bituminous road mixture. The investigation was divided into three main areas of study. They were, chemical and physical testing of the aggregate, and testing of a bituminous road mixture containing the modified aggregate, namely porous asphalt wearing course. Chemical testing involved a regime to show the affinity between coated and uncoated aggregates, and bitumen, in terms of adsorption, and desorption in the presence of water. Physical testing included all the common tests for demonstrating the advantageous properties of an aggregate. These tests included, the shear box test, the polished stone value test, the aggregate crushing value test and tests for surface roughness. Porous asphalt was chosen as a suitable road material for testing the effects of the modified aggregate on a bituminous material, as it is a stone matrix dependant mixture and is currently enjoying increased acceptance Europe wide as a driver friendly, high quality surfacing material. Tests applied included the repeat load axial, and the repeat load indirect tensile tests. In order to undertake large parts of the testing program, much of the equipment was constructed by the researcher at Liverpool John Moores University (LJMU). This included the shear box apparatus and the repeat load axial test apparatus. These were both designed to the relevant British standards and verified as being so. Observations made during the testing programme showed the coated aggregates displayed a useful improvement in their chemical and physical properties over uncoated aggregates in almost all the areas tested. Future recommendations include mass production prototyping so that the coated aggregate mixtures can be placed in road trial sections.

Cold Bituminous Emulsion Mixtures (BEMs) means manufacturing of asphalt at ambient temperature using bitumen emulsion as the binder. It has been widely utilised in many countries such as the USA and France. The use and development of BEMs were not brought forward in the UK due to the country’s relatively wet/cold climatic conditions, which are not favourable to the application of cold BEM in terms of the long curing process and low early strength. Decreasing wastes from aggregate production processes, reducing land-filling and reducing CO2 emissions during hot bituminous mixture production and laying are the main target schemes for the environmentally friendly processes. Cold BEM is one of the attractive methods of producing bituminous mixtures to tackle the mentioned disadvantages when incorporating some waste and/or by-product materials individually or collectively into these mixtures. Recently, researchers have shown an increased interest in incorporating supplementary cementitious materials (SCM) in production of BEMs in the UK and around the world. Three benefits can be stated when using SCM in BEMs; these are upgraded mechanical properties, gaining economic advantage and the ecological advantage factor. Mainly due to some inherent problems associated with the performance of the pavement produced by the BEMs process, they are regarded as “inferior” to conventional HMA. The major problems with this kind of application are the long curing time (evaporation of trapped water) required to achieve the required performance, the weak early life strength (because of the existence of water) and high air voids content. The full curing in the field of these mixtures may occur between 2−24 months depending on the mixture’s ingredients and weather conditions. Considering the above disadvantages, this study investigated the possible ways of developing a new BEM/s with gap graded mixtures similar to the conventional Hot Rolled Asphalt (HRA) gradation. HRA is extensively used for surfacing major roads in the UK because it provides a dense, impervious layer, resulting in a weather-resistant durable surface able to endure the demands of today’s traffic loads and providing good resistance to fatigue cracking. The mentioned new product is termed Cold Rolled Asphalt (CRA). The main aim of this study was to investigate producing high strength, fast curing and sustainable CRA mixtures for heavily trafficked road and highway surfacing layers by using different waste and by-product materials (normally used as SCM) individually and/or collectively as a replacement for conventional mineral filler. To achieve the above aim, four SCMs have been used which were: Waste Paper Sludge Ash (WPSA), which has high lime and gelenite content, Poultry Litter Fly Ash (PLFA), which has high alkali components, Silica Fume (SF), and Rice Husk Ash (RHA), which is high silica content and cost-plus material, collectively instead of conventional mineral filler. In addition, besides the production of the new high-quality CRA mixtures, the research includes a detailed comparison study of conventional HRA mixtures, CRA mixtures containing conventional mineral filler and CRA mixtures containing hydraulic filler, i.e. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC). This laboratory study was conducted by utilising different types of testing and curing and conditioning methods to characterise the mechanical properties and durability of the produced CRA mixtures. Indirect Tensile Stiffness Modulus (ITSM), Uniaxial Compression Cyclic Test (UCCT), Four Point Bending fatigue test on prismatic shaped specimens (4PB) and Semi-Circular Bending monotonic test (SCB) were used to assess the mechanical properties of these mixtures while Stiffness Modulus Ratio (SMR) and Long Term Oven Aging (LTOA) were used to investigate the main durability features, i.e. water sensitivity and long-term aging, respectively. Furthermore, Scan Electron Microscopy (SEM) technique and X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) analysis have been used to investigate the reasons behind the improvement in the mechanical properties of the novel mixtures. By means of ITSM results, four high-qualities CRA mixtures have been optimised which are: CRA-WPSA (containing 6% WPSA), CRA-BBF (containing 4.5% WPSA+1.5% PLFA), CRA-TBF-1 (containing 3.75% WPSA+1.25% PLFA+1% SF) and CRA-TBF-2 (containing 3.375% WPSA+1.125%PLFA+1.5% RHA). Stiffness modulus of CRA mixtures increases significantly by replacing the conventional mineral filler with WPSA, BBF, TBF-1 and TBF-2, especially in the early curing time (less than 7 days), which is the main disadvantage of the cold BEMs. Also, the target stiffness modulus, which is the ITSM for 100/150 HRA (approximately 2000MPa), was achieved after 4 hours for the produced fast-curing CRA mixtures, i.e. CRA-TBF-1 and CRA-TBF-2, under the normal curing method (24 hours in the mould then leave the samples at 20 ºC). In addition, the replacement of conventional mineral filler with WPSA, BBF, TBF-1 and TBF-2 greatly improves the permanent deformation resistance and fatigue life when compared with the control CRA and the traditional HRA mixtures.