Les maladies infectieuses constituent le principal groupe de maladies humaines communément considérées comme étant d’origine environnementale. Cependant, une question fondamentale dans ce domaine est la variabilité interindividuelle : pourquoi, au sein d’une même population exposée aux mêmes pathogènes, seule une minorité des individus infectés par un pathogène donné va développer une maladie dont l’expression clinique peut varier de l’état asymptomatique à la mort pour les formes les plus sévères. Le microbe est donc nécessaire mais non suffisant pour expliquer ces divergences. Selon la théorie génétique des maladies infectieuses, une proportion d’enfants ayant une ou plusieurs infections sévères mais étant par ailleurs sains, présenterait une immunodéficience primaire Mendélienne à l’origine d’une réponse immunitaire altérée spécifique du pathogène responsable. En considérant la susceptibilité accrue à des infections sévères par des bactéries pyogènes, cette hypothèse a conduit à la découverte, dans les années 2000, de plusieurs immunodéficiences primaires dans la voie de signalisation NF-kB, avec des mutations dans les gènes NEMO/IKBKG, IKBA, IRAK4 et MyD88 chez des enfants présentant des infections sévères par bactéries pyogènes, notamment Streptococcus pneumoniae et Staphylococcus aureus, et conduisant à une altération des voies Toll-interleukine-1 récepteur (TIR)-NF-kB. Mon travail de thèse a principalement porté sur l’étude d’une patiente aujourd’hui âgée de 5 ans. Elle est issue d’une famille consanguine et a souffert d’une pneumonie sévère à l’âge de 3 mois à la suite d’une infection par une souche PVL+ de S. aureus. .J’ai identifié chez elle un défaut autosomique récessif complet en TIRAP. Cependant, sept autres membres de la famille âgés entre 16 et 50 ans sont homozygotes pour la même mutation et n’ont jamais souffert d’infection sévère. TIRAP est un adaptateur des récepteurs TLR2 et TLR4 et la mutation rare R121W affecte un acide aminé très conservé dans son domaine TIR. L’allèle mutant de TIRAP induit une expression normale de l’ARN messager ainsi que de la protéine mais demeure non fonctionnel. Les réponses après stimulation par différents agonistes du TLR2 tels que le PAM2CSK4, le PAM3CSK4, et le FSL-1 ainsi que par le LPS, agoniste du TLR4 sont altérées dans les fibroblastes, les granulocytes et les monocytes des individus homozygotes pour la mutation R121W. Cependant, la réponse des cellules sanguines totales à l’acide lipoteichoïque (LTA) purifié de S. aureus, un autre agoniste du TLR2 est altérée uniquement chez la patiente. J’ai pu montrer que ce défaut est dû à une absence d’anticorps dirigés contre le LTA dans le plasma de la patiente. L’effet combiné de la mutation du gène TIRAP et de l’absence d’anticorps anti-LTA pourrait expliquer la survenue de l’infection sévère par S. aureus chez le cas index. L’ensemble de ce travail décrit pour la première fois un défaut héréditaire en TIRAP chez l’homme et fournit ainsi une meilleure compréhension du rôle de cette protéine dans les réponses en aval des TLRs. Il suggère également que, chez l’homme, la voie dépendante de TIRAP en aval du TLR2 est importante pour le contrôle des infections par S. aureus, au moins chez les enfants présentant un défaut de production d’anticorps anti-LTA ; cependant, TIRAP serait un gène en partie redondant dans l’immunité antibactérienne. / We describe a kindred comprising eight individuals with autosomal recessive complete deficiency of TIRAP (also called MAL), an adaptor downstream of TLR2 and TLR4. The 4-year-old proband suffered at three month of age from a life-threatening pneumonia caused by Staphylococcus aureus. Seven adult relatives, aged between 16 and 50 years, homozygous for the same TIRAP mutation never suffered from any serious infections. The rare missense R121W mutation affects a highly conserved amino acid in the TIR domain of TIRAP. The mutant TIRAP allele is expressed but displays loss of function. Responses to a variety of TLR2 agonists, including PAM2CSK4, PAM3CSK4, and FSL-1, and to the TLR4 agonist lipopolysaccharide (LPS), were impaired in fibroblasts, granulocytes, and monocytes of all TIRAP R121W homozygous individuals tested. Interestingly, the whole blood response to staphylococcal lipoteichoic acid (LTA), another TLR2 agonist, was impaired only in the index case. This defective response was due to a lack of anti-LTA antibodies in the patient’s plasma. The combined effect of the TIRAP R121W mutation and the absence of anti-LTA antibody provide an explanation for severe staphylococcal disease in the index case. These results provide the first description of human inherited TIRAP deficiency and help to delineate the role of human TIRAP in TLR responses. They suggest that human TIRAP-dependent TLR2 immunity is important for the control of S. aureus infection, at least in children lacking anti-LTA antibodies, but that TIRAP is otherwise redundant in host defense.

El alcohol es un compuesto neurotóxico y su abuso puede causar daño cerebral y neurodegeneración. Sin embargo, los procesos neuropatológicos que producen estos efectos no se conocen con exactitud. Nuestro grupo demostró por primera vez que el etanol induce gliosis, neuroinflamación, daño cerebral y neurodegeneración mediante la activación del sistema inmune innato en cerebro a través de los receptores TLR4 de las células gliales. Además, evidencias recientes apuntan a que el alcohol altera los procesos de degradación de proteínas en patologías como la hepatopatía alcohólica, pero se desconoce si estos procesos proteolíticos también participan en el daño cerebral inducido por el consumo de alcohol. Mediante esta tesis, pretendemos evaluar la relación de los dos principales complejos proteolíticos, el sistema ubicuitina-proteasoma y la vía de la autofagia, con el daño producido por el alcohol en el cerebro, así como la implicación de los receptores TLR4 en este proceso. Para ello, usaremos ratones WT y TLR4-/- tratados crónicamente con etanol en agua durante 5 meses y los compararemos con los respectivos controles mediante técnicas como el western blot, PCR cuantitativa, inmunofluorescencia, inmunohistoquímica o citometría. Del mismo modo, trabajaremos también con cultivos primarios de células gliales para evaluar el efecto del alcohol en dosis agudas in vitro. Nuestra hipótesis de partida es que al activar la señalización por TLR4, el etanol causa inflamación en el cerebro, estrés oxidativo y acumulación de proteínas por disfunción de los sistemas proteolíticos. Esta acumulación de agregados proteicos podría a su vez estimular la activación de los receptores TLR4, amplificando los efectos del etanol en la producción de daño cerebral y neurodegeneración. / Pla Rodríguez, A. (2014). IMPORTANCIA DE LOS MECANISMOS DE DEGRADACIÓN DE PROTEÍNAS EN LA NEURODEGENERACIÓN CAUSADA POR EL ABUSO DE ALCOHOL: PAPEL DE LOS RECEPTORES TLR4 [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/36532 / TESIS

Cannabinoid treatment increases Th2 activity and previous reports showed B cells express the highest level of CB2 mRNA relative to other immune cells suggesting that cannabinoids play a critical role in B cell activation and maturation. To examine the direct effect of cannabinoids on B cell antibody class switching, mouse splenic B cells were purified by negative selection and cultured with IL4 and anti-CD40 in the presence or absence of the nonselective cannabinoid agonist, CP55940, or the CB1 selective agonist, methanandamide, or the CB2 selective agonist, JW015. The cultures were then analyzed at different times by flow cytometry for expression of B cell surface markers, such as CD19, CD138, CD40, MHCII, CD23, CD80, CD45R, immunoglobulins produced such as IgM, IgE, IgD, and IgG1, and Toll-like receptors such as TLR 2 and 4. Cells treated with CP55940 showed an increase in surface expression of IgE by day 5 in culture; methanandamide had no effect. CP55940 also induced an increase in secreted IgE in culture supernatants analyzed by ELISA. In addition, CB2 receptors were increased on B cells following stimulation with IL-4 and anti-CD40 and the class switching effect of CP55940 was attenuated by the CB2 antagonist, SR144528. We also observed that cannabinoid treatment of B cells modulates cell functions other than antibody class switching such as surface marker and TLR expression. CP55940 caused a significant increase in surface expression of TLR 4, but had no effect on other markers. Additional experiments with cannabinoid receptor selective agonists and antagonists suggested both CB1 and CB2 receptors were involved in the TLR effect. Receptor involvement and Gi coupling was supported by our findings that cannabinoids inhibit intracellular cAMP levels in forskolin stimulated B cells, and increasing intracellular cAMP with forskolin suppressed IgE antibody class switching in activated B cell cultures. These results suggest cannabinoids negatively regulate cAMP in B cells resulting in increased IgE. In conclusion, cannabinoids can directly affect the function of B cells by inducing antibody class switching to IgE and TLR4 expression through mechanisms involving CB1 and CB2 receptors suggesting the endocannabinoid system may be an important regulator of humoral immunity and the allergic response.

Stress, either physical or psychological, can have a dramatic impact on the immune system. Little progress, however, has been made in understanding stress-induced immune suppression. We report here that mice subjected to chronic 12-hour daily physical restraint for two days significantly increased the expression of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4). Interestingly, TLR4-deficient mice are resistant to stress-induced lymphocyte reduction. In addition, restraint stress caused dramatic decrease in T help 1 (Th1) cytokine IFN-γ and IL-2 levels but increase in Th2 cytokine IL-4 in wild type mice. Moreover, the restraint stress significantly inhibits changes of Th1 and Th2 cytokines in TLR4-deficient mice compared with the wild type mice. Therefore, stress modulates the immune system through a TLR4-dependent mechanism.

Lipopolysaccharide or LPS is localized to the outer leaflet of the outer membrane and serves as the major surface component of the bacterial cell envelope. This remarkable glycolipid is essential for virtually all Gram-negative organisms and represents one of the conserved microbial structures responsible for activation of the innate immune system. For these reasons, the structure, function, and biosynthesis of LPS has been an area of intense research. The LPS of a number of bacteria is composed of three distinct regions - lipid A, a short core oligosaccharide, and the O-antigen polysaccharide. The lipid A domain, also known as endotoxin, anchors the molecule in the outer membrane and is the bioactive component recognized by TLR4 during human infection. Overall, the biochemical synthesis of lipid A is a highly conserved process; however, investigation of the lipid A structures of various organisms shows an impressive amount of diversity. These differences can be attributed to the action of latent enzymes that modify the canonical lipid A molecule. Variation of the lipid A domain of LPS serves as one strategy utilized by Gram-negative bacteria to promote survival by providing resistance to components of the innate immune system and helping to evade recognition by TLR4. This review summarizes the biochemical machinery required for the production of diverse lipid A structures of human pathogens and how structural modification of endotoxin impacts pathogenesis.

Rodents are a natural host for the dimorphic pathogenic fungi Coccidioides immitis and Coccidioides posadasii, and mice are a good model for human infection. Humans and rodents both express Dectin-1 and Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) on myeloid cells, and those receptors collaborate to maximize the cytokine/chemokine responses to spherules (the tissue form of the fungi) and to formalin-killed spherules (FKS). We showed that Dectin-1 is necessary for resistance to pulmonary coccidioidomycosis, but the importance of TLR2 in vivo is uncertain. Myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MyD88) is the adapter protein for TLR2 and -4, interleukin-1R1 (IL-1R1), and IL-18R1. MyD88/TRIF -/- and MyD88 -/- mice were equally susceptible to C. immitis infection, in contrast to C57BL/6 (B6) controls. Of the four surface receptors, only IL-1R1 was required for resistance to C. immitis, partially explaining the susceptibility of MyD88 -/- mice. We also found that FKS stimulated production of IL-1Ra by bone marrow-derived dendritic cells (BMDCs), independent of MyD88 and Dectin-1. There also was a very high concentration of IL-1Ra in the lungs of infected B6 mice, supporting the potential importance of this regulatory IL-1 family protein in the largely ineffective response of B6 mice to coccidioidomycosis. These results suggest that IL-1R1 signaling is important for defense against C. immitis infection.

Lymphatic metastasis in breast cancer (BC) is one of the most important prognostic factors for patient survival. The escaped tumor cells reach distant vital organs and their unopposed expansion in these organs may cause mortality to patient. Tumor cells are transported to lymph node (LN) exclusively by tumor lymphatic vessels (LV). Increased tumor lymphangiogenesis, i.e., the formation of new LV is currently thought to be promoted by soluble factors such as VEGF-C and –D that activate VEGFR-3 expressed in lymphatic endothelial cells (LEC). These factors are secreted by malignant, tumor-infiltrating immune and stromal cells and create a favorable environment for formation of new vessels. However, emerging evidence suggests that tumor lymphangiogenesis is also promoted by Myeloid-derived Lymphatic Endothelial Cell Progenitors (M-LECP). We recently showed that M-LECP are abundant in mouse and human breast tumors and that their density strongly correlates with both lymphatic formation and nodal metastasis. Characterization of M-LECP showed that nearly all these cells express typical markers of the M2-type of macrophages such as CD163, CD204, and CD209. These cells are consider to be strongly immunosuppressive as exemplified by their inhibition of mobilization, activation, and survival of the key defenders against cancer cells, cytotoxic CD8+ T lymphocytes. Here, we compare the in vitro differentiation of M-LECP derived from bone marrow (BM) myeloid precursors primed with CSF-1 followed by secondary stimulants such as LPS, an immunomodulatory ligand for TLR4, and IL-4, IL-13, and IL-10 downstream targets of this receptor that are known to promote M2-macrophage development. Expression of these stimulants was analyzed by qPCR, flow cytometry, and ELISA during M-LECP differentiation. Our study describes the expression and functionality of these Th2 cytokines and their receptors during M-LECP differentiation. We found that each of the Th2 pathways singularly promotes M-LECP differentiation but there is an absent additive effect. We also found that IL-10 but no other Th2 cytokines is upregulated along with its receptor and contributes to the expression of the lymphatic properties similarly to LPS. To our knowledge, the role of IL-10 in development of lymphatic phenotype through differentiation of M-LECP has not been reported previously. Lastly, we show recruitment of M-LECP in a mouse BC model and the co-expression of the Th2 cytokine receptors in these cells. These studies have a potential to identify new regulators of M-LECP production in the bone marrow that could serve as biomarkers and targets for inhibiting tumor lymphatic formation, and by extension, lymph node metastasis.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Damage Associated Molecular Patterns (DAMPs) act largely as endogenous ligands to initiate and maintain the signaling of both inflammatory processes and the acquired immune response. Prolonged action of these endogenous signals are thought to play a significant role sterile inflammation which may be integral to the development of chronic inflammation pathology. HMGB1 (High Mobility Group Box 1) is a highly conserved non-acetylated protein which is among the most important chromatin proteins and serves to organize DNA and regulate transcription. Following stress or injury to the cell, hyperacetylation of lysine residues causes translocation of HMGB1 and eventual release into the extracellular environment where it can take the form of a DAMP and interact with cell types bearing either the Receptor for Advanced Glycation End-products (RAGE) or Toll-Like Receptor 4 (TLR4). Activation of these surface receptors contribute directly to both acute and chronic inflammation. This project investigated the role of HMGB1 through its receptors Receptor for Advanced Glycation End-products (RAGE) and Toll-Like Receptor 4 (TLR4) as it pertained to the development of chronic inflammation and pathology in small diameter, nociceptive sensory neurons. It was demonstrated that the neuronal signaling associated with exposure to HMGB1 is dependent upon the ligands conformational states, as the state dictates its affinity and types of neuronal response. Neuronal activation by bacterial endotoxin or the disulfide state of HMGB1 is dependent on TLR4 and the associated signaling adapter protein, Myeloid differentiation primary response gene 88 (MYD88). Interruption of the receptor-mediated signaling cascade associated with MyD88 was shown to be sufficient to mitigate ligand-dependent neuronal activation and demonstrated significant behavioral findings. Further downstream signaling of HMGB1 in the neuron has yet to be identified, however important steps have been taken to elucidate the role of chronic neuroinflammation with hopes of eventual translational adaptation for clinical therapeutic modalities.

No description available.

infection is a leading cause of gastric cancer, which is the second-most common cancer-related death in the world. The chronic inflammatory environment in the gastric mucosal epithelia during infection stimulates intracellular signaling pathways, namely inflammatory signals, which may lead to the promotion and progression of cancer cells. We herein report two important signal transduction pathways, the LPS-TLR4 and CagA-MET pathways. Upon stimulation, lipopolysaccharide (LPS) binds to toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) mainly on macrophages and gastric epithelial cells. This induces an inflammatory response in the gastric epithelia to upregulate transcription factors, such as NF-κB, AP-1, and IRFs, all of which contribute to the initiation and progression of gastric cancer cells. Compared with other bacterial LPSs, LPS has a unique function of inhibiting the mononuclear cell (MNC)-based production of IL-12 and IFN-γ. While this mechanism reduces the degree of inflammatory reaction of immune cells, it also promotes the survival of gastric cancer cells. The HGF/SF-MET signaling plays a major role in promoting cellular proliferation, motility, migration, survival, and angiogenesis, all of which are essential factors for cancer progression. infection may facilitate MET downstream signaling in gastric cancer cells through its CagA protein via phosphorylation-dependent and/or phosphorylation-independent pathways. Other signaling pathways involved in infection include EGFR, FAK, and Wnt/β-Catenin. These pathways function in the inflammatory process of gastric epithelial mucosa, as well as the progression of gastric cancer cells. Thus, infection-mediated chronic inflammation plays an important role in the development and progression of gastric cancer.