It is no longer news that organizations are now highly dependent on knowledge assets as a primary source of competitive advantage. It is for this reason that knowledge is considered as powerful because it one aspect that guarantees sustainable source of success of any organization. This thesis survey the postulation of knowledge codification and non-codification in the knowledge management perspective in a chosen company. The study of knowledge management perceives codification and noncodification as knowledge that can be retained, reused, shared and management. However, the existing studies pay little or no attention as to how both codificationand non-codification can be adopted at same time in an organization as a process to better improve value. In these regards, the research poses to examine, how both concepts can be used by human resource managers to foster knowledge within the organization. The research was carried out by examining several departments with special interest on the Human Resource Section of a consulting and service providing company (Competence Call Center) situated in Barcelona, Spain. It is important to note that this company has several branches and as such have a central repository where knowledge is stored for use and reuse by all workers. The study was actioned using a qualitative approach where interviews were made to the participants. Being a consulting and service providing company, the study focused on finding how codification of knowledge and human resource management practices which is linked to non-codified knowledge can be used to foster the sharing of knowledge in the organization and also, to know how the company codifies knowledge in such a way that it is not lost and can be reused by workers. The study finds that CCC being a company that check contents on social media platforms, such as Facebook, has a central repository were knowledge is stored, and a major finding is that such knowledge is stored in different languages which can be accessible to employees. Even though we examine the Barcelona branch of this company, it was discovered that all branches have similar working culture (cultural-fit) entailing that during recruitment decisions, that some sort of cultural training especially in information technology (IT) is carried out by the Human resource management department. These findings indicates that the knowledge domain of this company is of a codified nature and can be easily accessed but in addition CCC also ensures that noncodified knowledge is shared between workers through HRM practices. In the analysis, focus is on how codified and non-codified knowledge is shared inside the company. By this statement, we pose to say that the knowledge sharing is more than just codifying information or sharing non-codified knowledge, in contrast knowledge sharing is to create, to share, to retain and to reuse knowledge between individuals, individuals sometimes find difficult the process of knowledge sharing. Hence, in the adoption of codified and non-codified knowledge within the organization, the combination of working culture and other structured strategies or standardized professional roles for individual development, can pave way for the employee transparency and aid in improving individual domain knowledge.

A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Arts in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Library and Information Science at the University of Zululand, South Africa, 2015 / Knowledge management (KM) is increasingly important for university library management and information services. Libraries have excelled in the management of explicit/tangible/recorded knowledge for many years, however, not as much in the management of tacit/intangible knowledge which is assumed to be more difficult to manage. Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) play a crucial role for knowledge management in the academic libraries. Unfortunately, the knowledge of the role of ICT in KM in university libraries is limited generally, and in Nigeria and South Africa in particular. The purpose of the present study was to explore and examine the use of ICTs as tools for the support of KM in selected academic (university) libraries in Nigeria and South Africa. In accomplishing this, eight research objectives that were guided by nine research questions. Finally, three research hypotheses were examined. The research objectives were: establishing how knowledge management is practised by librarians in academic libraries of Nigeria and South Africa; exploring the available ICT facilities, KM tools, and services that can be used for the support of KM in academic libraries in Nigeria and South Africa; determining the extent to which librarians in Nigerian and South African university libraries utilise ICTs to support KM; investigating strategies that would promote the use of ICTs for the support of KM in academic libraries in Nigeria and South Africa; determining and comparing librarians’ knowledge and ICTs skills for the support of KM in academic libraries in Nigeria and South Africa; finding policies that guide the use of ICTs for the support of KM in academic libraries in Nigeria and South Africa; examining the challenges faced in the use of ICTs for the support of KM in academic libraries in Nigeria and South Africa; and recommending a conceptual model of the use of ICTs for the support of KM in academic libraries in Nigeria and South Africa. The study was informed by positivism and the interpretivism research paradigm. The quantitative (survey) and qualitative (interpretive and content analysis) research methods were employed. The population for the study consisted of all professional librarians in the two countries university libraries. The non-probability sampling, grounded on purposive and convenient/accidental sampling techniques, was used to select 171 professional libraries in the six university libraries. The six university libraries in the two countries were University of Ibadan, Federal University of Technology, Delta State University, University of Zululand, University of KwaZulu-Natal and Durban University of Technology). The six university libraries were selected on the basis of first generation universities and university ranking index in Africa, funding and resourcefulness of the institution (University of Ibadan library and University of KwaZulu-Natal library); Technological universities as practically oriented and the availability of facilities (Federal University of Technology library and Durban University of Technology library); as well as rurally based universities, government-owned and growing institutions (Delta State University library and University of Zululand library). The instruments for data collection used were the questionnaire, interview and observation methods. The professional librarians across the sampled university libraries in Nigeria and South Africa were administered 171 copies of structured questionnaires. While six key informants working in the university libraries in the two countries were interviewed. Observation methods were also used to gather information regarding the university libraries environment, physical structure and location, office space (conduciveness), availability and accessibility of computers and other ICT tools, collections (print and electronic resources), shelving space, size and lighting in the office and attitude of staff towards their work while with them. Of the 171 copies of questionnaires administered among the respondents, 132 (77.2%) were returned. The 132 (77.2%) returned consisted of 77 from university libraries in Nigeria, while 55 came from university libraries in South Africa. The 132 copies of returned questionnaire were subjected to statistical analysis of descriptive and inferential statistics. The findings revealed that knowledge management practices (KMPs) involve all library operations, processes and services. There are variations in ICT and KM tools and services among the sampled university libraries as their level of development is not the same. The most available and accessible ICT and KM tools and services vary in terms of jobs undertaken by librarians from one university library to another. Old technologies such as computers, CD-ROMs, scanners, projectors, telephones, printers, and monitors appeared to be the most available and accessible tools across the selected university libraries in the two countries. South African university libraries were better resourced than the Nigerian university libraries in the sample. The availability and accessibility of ICT and KM tools and services appear to be in greater effect, as librarians were able to use them to carry out library operations and other management functions. The university libraries sampled tend to use updated ICTs/KM tools including smart boards, semantic web-tools, information retrieval tools, database management systems, management systems for electronic documents, and management information systems for improved library and information management of the organizations. The use of these tools became necessary as current practices in information services have equally changed. It was established that various strategies have been used to train and foster innovation and growth in the library organizations. These strategies have affected the university libraries organizational culture, work environment, management support systems, librarians’ knowledge, and access to information. In order for librarians to cope with the emerging knowledge and skills levels in information service requirements in university libraries, continuing education and training is necessary. The main challenges that affected the use of ICTs in supporting KM in the sampled university libraries included: inadequate funding; lack of motivation; lack of infrastructure; the loss of LIS practitioners to other professions; language barriers; and the inability to work independently. However, the inadequacy of professional staff was noticed in all cases. It was found that the role(s), for which ICTs play an indispensible tool, in present day library organizations, cannot be overemphasized. ICTs are used to manage knowledge in diverse ways: acquisition, processing, storage, and dissemination of large volumes of information resources, stored in university libraries’ institutional repositories. It can also be used to access and retrieve knowledge from library websites without the need for a physical visitation to the library building. Different strategies have emerged where social networks are used to promote library products and services. Library professionals have equally shifted from being custodians of information and knowledge to facilitators of library resources and services through the attendance of workshops, seminars and conferences. The exposure to workshops, seminars and conferences has enabled librarians to be more knowledgeable and skilled in managing knowledge through the use of ICT tools in the university libraries that were sampled. The study concluded that, knowledge management practices in the academic libraries are diverse, and include the management of both tacit (apprenticeship and mentoring and mentoring of information service providers and training of the library users for effective information access and use, particularly academics who produce new knowledge) and explicit knowledge. ICTs play a major role in the KM activities and processes but re-skilling of both information service providers and the library users is essential at all times in order to counter the rapid changes in information access, service and use of the environment. The challenges that are highlighted in the current study are largely known, however, should be handled boldly and with more immediacy than before. The study recommends the need to create more awareness of KMPs among librarians in academic libraries. The acquisition of new ICTs and KM tools for better access and use of information services should also be intensified. Staff development through formal, informal and continuing education should be supported. The work of university committees that are charged with coordinating, monitoring and evaluating library services should enable the improvement of the library services. The LIS schools have to step up LIS education to meet the current information service requirements in their curriculum. The management body of academic libraries should set up staff member committee to review and evaluate ICT policies on regular basis to meet their demand. Relevant library stakeholders should be involved in KM activities of the library where such bodies do not exist. TAM should be considered for informing ICT access and use for KM in the academic libraries. / Nigerian Tertiary Education Trust Fund (TETFUND)

Since the 1990s, Knowledge Management Systems (KMS) have been largely unsuccessful in the collection of tacit knowledge. The process, whether through direct input by the holder of the tacit knowledge or through an intermediary such as the collection of tacit knowledge through interviews and videos, has not succeeded. Reasons encompass the organizational (such as culture of the organization), the technological (example: poor tools), and the individual (example: knowledge is power, i.e. where experts with rare knowledge results in knowledge hoarding instead of transfer). The purpose of this study was to demonstrate that tacit knowledge could be successfully and consistently collected from the participants themselves and placed into a KMS using a storytelling-based approach. This study extended past research that collected stories for KMS’ using interviews and videos by having participants directly entering their data, as stories, into a KMS. This was a new approach and it was posited that having participants use stories to enter their tacit knowledge themselves into a KMS would overcome their reluctance to provide tacit knowledge thus overcoming barriers to providing tacit knowledge into a KMS The validation methodology was based upon three elements: the deep-dive research element, the issues and solution element, and the dissertation proposition element. The deep-dive research element was the extensive research for the study into knowledge management, storytelling, and other various methods for collection of tacit knowledge. The issues and solution element consisted of issues about tacit knowledge that were identified from the deep-dive research element, i.e. general arguments constructed about knowledge management which were backed by data from research into knowledge management systems and storytelling. Theoretical solutions to the issues regarding the capture of tacit knowledge were then constructed which included the storytelling-based approach and a KMS framework for the collection of tacit knowledge. Lastly was the dissertation proposition element which consisted of a thorough analysis of the survey data against each of the dissertation propositions. There were three propositions. Proposition 1 was sharing of knowledge and the storytelling-based approach. Proposition 2 was about the framework, the scenarios, guiding questions, and Communities of Practice (CoP), and Proposition 3 was about participant knowledge and interaction with forums. Each proposition was evaluated independently. The study was successful and validated propositions 1 and 2. For proposition 1, 81% of the participants responded positively to the eight study questions directed towards this proposition. For all eight questions across all 21 participants, the mean was 29.952 against a target test mean of 24 with a range of 27.538-32.367. For proposition 2, 76.19% of participants scored this section positive. For all six questions across all 21 participants, the mean was 23 against a target test mean of 18 with a range of 21.394-24.606. However, the results for proposition 3 were inconclusive and must be considered a failure. Most of the respondents either scored ‘no change’ to at least 50% of the questions or they stated they had never been to a forum. For all four questions across all 21 participants, the mean was 12.905 against a target mean of 12 with a range of 11.896-13.914. Based upon propositions 1 and 2, the null hypothesis was disproved. Participants liked the storytelling-based approach, providing their tacit knowledge, and they liked the framework.

The employment of virtual reality (VR) in the cultural heritage context has been recognized as a new trend shaping the way audiences interact with museums. This research explores the effect of VR experience on art interpretation through an audience reception analysis of two VR exhibitions: Mona Lisa: Beyond the Glass and Dreams of Dalí. An ethnographic method was used, i.e., semi-structured interviews with 10 participants served to understand how audiences react to VR. Hall’s encoding/decoding model and Norman’s concept of affordances were employed to determine whether, and in what way, decoding of the VR affordances affects the interpretation of the presented art. First, the results showed that all five previously identified affordances (immersion, presence, empathy, embodiment and usability) are existent in the VR exhibitions. Space perception as an additional affordance has been identified, including seclusion as an anti-affordance specific to VR exhibitions. Second, the results of the conducted interviews’ analysis show proportionality between the VR affordances and interpretation, i.e., the preferred reading of the artwork. In most cases, the stronger the affordances are, the stronger the comprehension, and the more positive the evaluation. Empathy affordance has demonstrated to be the strongest indicator of a preferred interpretation since it is proportionate to the evaluation of all 10 interviewees. These results have implications both in and outside the cultural heritage context – VR employs unconventional and persuasive modes of communicating; it encourages creative, more inclusive, and tacit learning.

In economics, new growth theory suggests that knowledge creation and innovation are key drivers of growth. As a result, the ‘new economy’ is increasingly reliant upon the knowledge, skills, and abilities embodied in its workforce, also known as human capital, that facilitate the stimulation and generation of new ideas (Romer 1986, 1990 and Lucas 1988). This research contributes to the understanding of the relationship between stocks of human capital and economic output. I construct metrics to measure concentrations of basic worker skills using the Bureau of Labor Statistics Occupational Information Network (O*NET) and employment estimates for 353 US metropolitan areas. In general, I find that basic skills are positively correlated with higher productivity. Specifically, I find that higher levels of the skills math and critical thinking partially explain higher levels of regional productivity. Science, though not statistically significant, has a negative correlation between higher levels of skill and regional output.

I investigated the presence, utility, and emergence of tacit knowledge in 9 study participants who used assistive-augmentative technology. I conducted phenomenologic interviews, audio-taping, and transcribed the interview with the written consent of the participants. Sixteen highly trained experts critiqued the final product of the interviews and answered a 25-question survey instrument. Non-parametric statistical processes were chosen to conduct inferential hypotheses testing. Wilcoxon - Mann Whitney U tests and Kruskal - Wallis One-Way ANOVA (alpha level of 0.05) were used for questions 1-10, and a 2 x R (R = 3 or 4) contingency table and Fisher's Exact Chi-Square were used for questions 11- 25. The responses to survey questions showed no statistically significant differences or interaction for the variables gender, expertise, and service (p < 0.0017). Qualitative analysis found discernable heuristics and ideation that was indicative of the presence of implicitly learned tacit knowledge in study participants; the utility of tacit knowledge emerged during direct observation or when participant's engaged in analogy, storytelling, and metaphor. The participants in this study used introspeculation, a learning style framed by reflection and introspection on the validity of one's own knowledge and the value of what is learned from life experience and in the classroom. The introspeculative examined the presence and utility of tacit knowledge in decision-making, and questioned the veracity of sources and resources that guide them on the path of life. The study suggested that tacit knowledge not only informs the practice of therapists and technology users but may assist classroom teachers facing student involvement in individual education plans (IEPs), Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), or section 504 of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA).

The purpose of this study was to assess the perceptions of principals who serve as mentors for an internship program for aspiring principals at East Tennessee State University. Each mentor was interviewed to gather information about the internship program, the benefits of mentoring in the program, and what the mentors may have learned about their tacit knowledge as a result of the experience. Mentors and the professors in the Educational Leadership Policy Analysis department at ETSU may benefit from the findings as the design of the school leadership program continues to advance. Mentoring is an important component of training for aspiring and beginning principals because interns learn on the job in a supportive environment where they can take chances. Mentors also learn from the experience of being a mentor. The literature reviewed for this case study supported the need for standard-based mentoring programs. The ISLLC standards are an excellent example of standards that are used to provide structure and coherence for mentoring programs. Positive and negative outcomes for the mentor were reviewed to support the research. Leadership and the change process were also reviewed to support the importance of the mentor's role in the process we call mentoring. Several themes emerged from the analysis of data provided by mentor principals about mentoring aspiring principals. Mentoring resulted in reflection about the decisions the mentor makes during the day while explaining procedures to the intern. It was also found to be an experience that works best when a positive relationship is developed between the mentor and the intern; often leading to a relationship that lasts long after the internship is over. Principals examined their understanding of tacit knowledge and the possible ways tacit knowledge could be taught to their intern.

There has been a growing prevalent interest to explore the role of knowledge in organizations. Bhardwaj and Monin (2006) identified the knowledge of individuals' as a valuable source of competitive advantage. An organizations well-rounded institutional memory- the organizations collective experiences (Rothwell & Poduch, 2004), fosters competitive advantage. There is a prevailing need to scrutinize the role of tacit knowledge in organizations and how it's hard to articulate nature makes it difficult for organizations to acquire and preserve institutional memory value. The aim of this review is to illustrate that tacit knowledge contributes significantly to the institutional memory value, expansion and preservation. In an effort to simplify this relationship between tacit knowledge and institutional memory, a comprehensive literature search was performed. I first discuss the role of knowledge in organizations and use the literature on tacit knowledge as a guide to explain the importance of its elicitation for institutional memory expansion and preservation. I then propose: (1) the use of tacit knowledge elicitation as a mediator, and (2) recommend training and a learning organization environment as moderators, for the contribution to take place. Finally, I suggest that organizations: (a) Elicit tacit knowledge sharing at their human capital development training programs (b) develop and implement this trainings at managerial levels, and (c) a "know-why" method to elicit and capture tacit knowledge in a reference guide, to consequently add value to the institutional memory, I conclude with a discussion of implications and limitations for the proposed perspective, and provide suggestions for future research.

In this thesis, I argue for a move from the preoccupation with the obvious (crude and quantifiable impacts), towards critically examining the subtle (less than obvious impacts), which will allow us to deal with adversities (the likes of HIV and AIDS) in the most effective ways. The thesis adopts the summative governance framework to demonstrate how our preoccupation with the quantifiable impacts shrouds our intellectual and practical ability to deal with the subtle impacts of AIDS. Governance is hypothesised to emerge amidst turbulent, unpredictable, messy, complex and dynamic path conditions predicated upon certain orders of criticality, including but not limited to the process of knowledge formation, retention and transfer. The thesis suggests that the evolution of governance from nascent to fully institutionalised mechanisms of control is in itself a product of the evolution of knowledge. Notwithstanding, HIV and AIDS constrain the emergence of governance through impacting the process of knowledge formation, retention and transfer. Resultantly, these impacts are not merely additive and isolated to the sectoral governances, but are summative, intergenerational and structured, and potentially endanger the fundamental systems of governance. The pre and post independence induced vulnerabilities of Namibia are presented to demonstrate that the country is an engrossing, but yet a perilous mix of the past and the present. Whilst Namibia aspires for a democratic, non-racial, progressive society, the thesis demonstrates that due to constraints engendered by HIV and AIDS this proceeds on terms and conditions that by no means guarantee a happy outcome.

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