Diss. Stockholm : Stockholms universitet, 2005.

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The culminating philosophy and practice for Buddhist traditions in Tibet is what is found in tantra, or Vajrayāna. Yet Tibet is unique in the Buddhist world in that it is a place where not only the traditions of tantra are practiced, but where the epistemological traditions of valid cognition and what came to be known as Prāsangika-Madhyamaka also took root. This chapter briefly surveys a range of ways in which Madhyamaka is represented in Tibet. Madhyamaka takes the place of the highest philosophical view among Tibetan Buddhist sects, and seeing how different traditions formulate the view of Madhyamaka is an important part of understanding how these traditions relate to tantra and negotiate the relationship between Madhyamaka and Vajrayāna. Vajrayāna in Tibet is pantheist to the core, for, in its most profound expressions all dualities between the divine and the world are radically undone.

The culminating philosophy and practice for Buddhist traditions in Tibet is what is found in tantra, or Vajrayāna. Yet Tibet is unique in the Buddhist world in that it is a place where not only the traditions of tantra are practiced, but where the epistemological traditions of valid cognition and what came to be known as Prāsangika-Madhyamaka also took root. This chapter briefly surveys a range of ways in which Madhyamaka is represented in Tibet. Madhyamaka takes the place of the highest philosophical view among Tibetan Buddhist sects, and seeing how different traditions formulate the view of Madhyamaka is an important part of understanding how these traditions relate to tantra and negotiate the relationship between Madhyamaka and Vajrayāna. Vajrayāna in Tibet is pantheist to the core, for, in its most profound expressions all dualities between the divine and the world are radically undone.

Buddhist tantric practitioners embrace the liminal status of the human body to manifest divine identity. In piercing to the pith of human embodiment, the tantric practitioner reconfigures the shape and contours of his/her reality. This article investigates the evolution of one particular technique for piercing to the pith of the body on Tibetan soil, a ritual practice known as body mandala [lus dkyil Skt. deha-man. d. ala]. In particular, it uncovers a significant shift of emphasis in the application of the Guhyasamaja body mandala practice initiated by champions of the emerging Gandenpa [Dga' ldan pa] or Gelukpa [Dge lugs pa] tradition of Tibetan Buddhism, Tsongkhapa (1357-1419) and Mkhas grub rje (1385-1438). This article reveals some of the radical implications of ritual exegesis, ranging from the socioreligious aspects of securing prestige for a tradition to the ultimate soteriological goals of modifying the boundaries between life and death and ordinary and enlightened embodiment.

Uppsatsens syfte är att undersöka varför människor i Sverige praktiserar tantra, hur dessa personer förhåller sig till tantra som livsfilosofi och världsåskådning samt till sitt eget praktiserande utav det. Genom att analytiskt ställa frågan Varför sysslar folk i Sverige med tantra? till två olika podcaster, Instagramkonton och en självbiografi som berör just tantrautövande i Sverige så har en längtan efter esoterisk (ny)andlighet och tantra som självförverkligande identitetsmarkör identifierats i den diskurs som dominerar materialet. I uppsatsen urskiljs ett antal diskurser som beskriver hur personerna i det empiriska materialet resonerar kring sitt tantrautövande och hur de hittade till tantran från första början. Vidare identifieras avsaknaden av en given vardagsandlighet i det moderna, sekulariserade samhället samt värdet av att en sådan andlig praktik kan integreras i ens sexualitet, sexuella praktiker samt andra kroppsliga behov och lustar vilket, för västerlänningar, är utmärkande för tantra. Detta diskuteras i termer av banal exotifiering och som självförverkligande praktik i relation till bell hooks teori om konsumtion av andraskap, något som för flera av dem som uttalar sig i det undersökta materialet möjliggjort en karriär inom tantra eller med tantra som karriärmässigt verktyg.

My dissertation investigates the concept of ‘divinization’, or becoming like (or identical to) God or the Buddha in the thought of two early medieval monk-philosophers from radically different religious-philosophical traditions, Maximus the Confessor (580-662 CE) and Kukai (774-835 CE). I use this as a means of comparing the relationship between understandings of identity and praxis advocated by these two thinkers. Maximus was a Christian monk who lived during a period of great theological and political turmoil in the Byzantine Empire and participated in the theological debates of his day. Kukai was a Japanese monk who studied esoteric Buddhism in China and returned to establish an esoteric lineage in Japan, allowing it to survive after its demise in China. In the first half of my dissertation, I investigate their philosophical understandings of identity, what makes a thing what it is and not something else. I consider this their metaphysic (using the term in the broadest sense of an account of reality). I begin by looking at their religio-philosophical contexts which informed their thought and then on texts written by my principles themselves. Maximus’ understanding, shaped by Greek philosophy and early Christian theologians, is embodied in a triad of concepts – logoi, divine ideas and wills which bestow being on created things and hold them in existence; tropoi, the modes of existence of particular creatures and hypostasis, the individual existent or creature which exists in the tension between logoi and tropoi. The core of Kukai’s understanding is funi (不二) or non-duality, a doctrine that has both epistemic and ontological implications. It is grounded in the experience of meditation as well as the esoteric Buddhist teaching of muge (無礙), the mutual interpenetration and non-obstruction of all things. It is a doctrine central to esotericism but also has roots in prajnāpāramitā (“perfection of wisdom”) literature, important to many schools of Mahāyāna Buddhism. How they understand ‘identity’ is central to their philosophy and will reflect in both the practices they advocate and the rationale for them After establishing and explicating their understanding of identity, in consequent chapters I look at the praxes that they advocate and their metapraxis or reasoning behind these practices. I focus on regimes of self-cultivation, such as meditation, prayer, virtuous behavior, various ritual activities and how they lead to the ultimate goal of divinization. In Maximus, this process of divinization is called theosis (θέωσις), ‘deification’. He follows in a long line of Christian thinkers who hold that God created human beings in order to make them like himself, to become by grace what God is by nature. In Kūkai, this process is known as sokushin jōbutsu (即身成仏), ‘becoming a Buddha in this very existence’. He is the heir to an esoteric tradition that holds that all sentient beings are originally enlightened, they have Buddha-mind or already are the Buddha, but this reality is obscured by a profound miscognition of the reality which gives rise to egoistic craving. In the final section, I look more closely at these respective accounts of divinization, to show the profound parallels and divergences found in their thought and elucidate the source of these differences in their respective metaphysic, their accounts of identity; how does identity shape practice? What informs this understanding of identity? This is the larger question I am seeking to address. In doing so, even though my research is limited in focus to two particular thinkers, they do act as representatives of two larger traditions, Early/Eastern Christianity and Japanese Buddhism. The answers they give to this question reflect the insights and positions offered by these larger traditions. / Religion

Fondé en 1955 par un fonctionnaire bengali, Ananda Marga, « la voie de la félicité », est une secte hindoue qui s’est donné un mode d’organisation à échelle planétaire et s’implique dans des activités missionnaires dans un grand nombre de pays. Dans le paysage religieux de l’Inde contemporaine, elle se distingue par les violences dont ses disciples ont été accusés. L’enquête ethnographique menée en son sein, l’analyse de sa littérature interne et le recueil de témoignages d’anciens disciples montrent que ces violences s’expliquent par les aspirations politiques de son fondateur et de ses membres ainsi que par l’instabilité de son assise économique. Mais pas uniquement. Elles visent également une mutation radicale de la personne du disciple et une transformation profonde la société, deux processus intimement liés. En se soumettant volontairement à des violences psychologiques et physiques, le disciple entend se soustraire aux limitations de l’existence ordinaire. S’il se libère ainsi du monde, c’est pour mieux agir dans le monde au service exclusif de son Gourou et de sa mission. Dotés d’une telle finalité, les actes de violence extrême apparaissent comme les expressions d’une ardeur dévotionnelle poussée à son paroxysme. Cette conception singulière de l’ascétisme prend source dans la culture tantrique bengalie, laquelle tient la force pour une manifestation de l’Énergie divine (śakti) et le Maître pour une divinité incarnée / Founded in 1955 by a Bengali civil servant, Ananda Marga, the "way of bliss", is a Hindu sect with worldwide organization and involved in missionary activities in a great number of countries. In the religious landscape of contemporary India, it is distinctively characterized by the violence for which its followers have been accused. The ethnographical research carried out among this sect, combined with the analysis of its internal literature and the collection of testimonies of former disciples shows that this violence can be explained by the political aspirations of its founder and its members as well as by instability of its economic base. But it can also be explained by two interrelated processes: the profound change in the person of the disciples and a radical transformation of the society. By submitting himself voluntarily to psychological and physical violence, a disciple tries to go over the limitations of ordinary existence. However, he frees himself from this world so that he can be in exclusive service to his Guru and his mission in this world. With such a purpose, acts of extreme violence appear as expressions of devotional fervour pushed to its climax. The source of this peculiar conception of asceticism can be traced in Bengali tantric culture, for which the force represents a manifestation of divine energy (śakti) and the Guru represents an incarnate deity

This dissertation examines the concept of living liberation in the Tirumantiram, a work recognised as one of the Tamil Saiva canonical texts composed around the ninth century. Modern scholarship has thus far attempted to comprehend the Tirumantiram in terms of the post-Tirumantiram traditions that developed after the thirteenth century: Tamil Saiva Siddhànta and Tamil Siddha. Consequently, the unity and coherence of the text are subjected to question, and the dual literary and cultural roots of the Tirumantiram remain largely uninvestigated. Besides, the significance of the Tirumantiram as one of the earliest vernacular works directly dealing with the question of soteriology for Tamil speaking populace, most of whom are not qualified for liberation and preceptorhood according to the Saivàgamas with which the text identifies itself, is not fully recognised. This dissertation argues that the concept of living liberation constitutes the unifying theme of the Tirumantiram, which is an outcome of the synthesis of Tamil and Sanskrit traditions, and demonstrates that the Tirumantiram-which does not apparently promote the ideology of temple cult around which the Tamil bhakti movement and Saivàgamas of Southern Saivism developed–exemplifies an alternative religious vision centred on the human body. This dissertation consists of four chapters. The first chapter examines the Tamil legacy to the concept of living liberation. The second examines the ambiguous relations between the Sanskrit traditions and the Tirumantiram. How the Tamil and Sanskrit traditions are fused together to produce a unique version of yoga, the means to attain living liberation, is the concern of the third chapter. The final chapter establishes through an analysis of sexual symbolism expressed in connotative language that the Tirumantiratm is an esoteric text. Thus, the Tirumantiram reflects the blending of an esoteric tantric sect with the leading mainstream bhakti religion, probably to win approval of and recognition in the Tamil Saiva community during the medieval period.

This dissertation examines the concept of living liberation in the Tirumantiram, a work recognised as one of the Tamil Saiva canonical texts composed around the ninth century. Modern scholarship has thus far attempted to comprehend the Tirumantiram in terms of the post-Tirumantiram traditions that developed after the thirteenth century: Tamil Saiva Siddhànta and Tamil Siddha. Consequently, the unity and coherence of the text are subjected to question, and the dual literary and cultural roots of the Tirumantiram remain largely uninvestigated. Besides, the significance of the Tirumantiram as one of the earliest vernacular works directly dealing with the question of soteriology for Tamil speaking populace, most of whom are not qualified for liberation and preceptorhood according to the Saivàgamas with which the text identifies itself, is not fully recognised. This dissertation argues that the concept of living liberation constitutes the unifying theme of the Tirumantiram, which is an outcome of the synthesis of Tamil and Sanskrit traditions, and demonstrates that the Tirumantiram-which does not apparently promote the ideology of temple cult around which the Tamil bhakti movement and Saivàgamas of Southern Saivism developed–exemplifies an alternative religious vision centred on the human body. This dissertation consists of four chapters. The first chapter examines the Tamil legacy to the concept of living liberation. The second examines the ambiguous relations between the Sanskrit traditions and the Tirumantiram. How the Tamil and Sanskrit traditions are fused together to produce a unique version of yoga, the means to attain living liberation, is the concern of the third chapter. The final chapter establishes through an analysis of sexual symbolism expressed in connotative language that the Tirumantiratm is an esoteric text. Thus, the Tirumantiram reflects the blending of an esoteric tantric sect with the leading mainstream bhakti religion, probably to win approval of and recognition in the Tamil Saiva community during the medieval period.