Many attempts have been made to make cancer therapy more selective and less detrimental to the health of the patients. Nanoparticles have emerged as a way to solve some of the problems of traditional chemotherapy. Nanoparticles can provide protection for the therapeutic from degradation or clearance, as well as protection to healthy tissue from the damaging effects of chemotherapy drugs. Researchers are pursuing different strategies but all have the same goals of improving the outcomes of cancer patients. The field of controlled release of drugs has increased significantly in hopes of better treating diseases like cancer. Improved control of drug release has great potential for improving patient outcomes. Still there exist certain barriers such as circulation time, cell specificity, and endosomal escape.In this study a novel drug delivery vehicle was studied in vitro. The novel construct consisted of a liposome containing perfluorocarbon emulsions—an eLiposome—that was activated by ultrasound to break open on demand. Two targeting moieties were attached to the eLiposome to increase cell specificity and induce endocytosis. These studies determined the localization of eLiposomes in vitro using flow cytometry and confocal microscopy. Results indicated that eLiposomes modified with a targeting moiety attached to HeLa cells to a greater extent than non-targeting eLiposomes. Confocal images indicated localization of eLiposomes around the membrane of cells. Flow cytometer results indicated that ultrasound does in fact disrupt the eLiposomes but evidence of significant delivery to the cytoplasm was not obtained. However cells that were incubated with eLiposomes for 24 hours showed over 60% of the cells had green color association indicating eLiposome uptake.

Graphen und Siliciumdioxid Nanopartikel sind als Trägersubstanz für Medikamente beim Drug Targeting von Interesse. Diese Arbeit ist eine toxikologische Untersuchung der Nanopartikel Graphen und Siliciumdioxid im Zellmodell. Dabei wurden Graphen Nanopartikel mit einer Dicke von 6 bis 8 nm und einer Breite von 15 µm verwendet. Die verwendeten Siliciumdioxid Nanopartikel waren kugelförmig und porös mit einer Partikel-Größe von 5 bis 20 nm. Die dosisabhängige Toxizität (Konzentrationen 0,01 mg/ml, 0,1 mg/ml und 1 mg/ml, Inkubation über 24 Stunden) gegenüber 5 verschiedenen Zelllinien (cerebEND, Caco-2, Hep G2, HEK-293, H441) wurde geprüft. Dabei kamen Zellviabilitätstests (CellTiter-Glo Assay, EZ4U-Test) zum Einsatz. Zudem wurde mit den Apoptose-Markern Bax und Caspase-3 auf Gen- und Proteinebene (Polymerasekettenreaktion und Western Blot) überprüft, ob eine Apoptose eingeleitet wurde. Zur Untersuchung der Zellviabilität wurde der CellTiter-Glo Assay verwendet. Für Graphen Nanopartikel zeigte sich ab einer Konzentration von 1 mg/ml bei den Zelllinien HEK-293 und H441 ein statistisch signifikanter Abfall der Zellviabilität. CerebEND und Hep G2 Zellen reagierten auf Graphen Nanopartikel ab einer Konzentration von 1 mg/ml ebenfalls mit einem deutlichen Abfall der Zellviabilität, diese Ergebnisse waren jedoch nicht statistisch signifikant. Die Zelllinie Caco-2 zeigte sich von den Graphen Nanopartikeln unbeeindruckt, es kam zu keiner statistisch signifikanten Veränderung der Zellviabilität. Siliciumdioxid Nanopartikel bewirkten ab einer Konzentration von 1 mg/ml einen statistisch signifikanten Abfall der Zellviabilität bei den Zelllinien cerebEND, HEK-293 und H441. HepG2 Zellen zeigten bei 1 mg/ml Siliciumdioxid einen deutlichen aber statistisch nicht signifikanten Abfall der Zellviabilität. Die Zelllinie Caco-2 erwies sich auch bei Siliciumdioxid Nanopartikel als äußerst robust und zeigte keine statistisch signifikanten Veränderungen der Zellviabilität. Messungen der Zellviabilität auf Grundlage von Adsorptionsmessung, wie beim EZ4U-Test, hatten sich als ungeeignet erwiesen, da die Eigenfarbe der Nanopartikel Graphen und Siliciumdioxid mit dieser Messung interferierte. Zudem wurde geprüft, ob die bei einem Teil der Zelllinien eingetretene toxische Wirkung der Nanopartikel ab einer Konzentration von 1 mg/ml durch Nekrose oder durch Apoptose zustande kam. Die Polymerasekettenreaktion zeigte mit einer einzigen Ausnahme keine statistisch signifikante Erhöhung der Genexpression für Bax und Caspase-3 und gab somit auch keine Hinweise auf die Einleitung einer Apoptose. Im Western Blot zeigte sich keine statistisch signifikante Erhöhung der Proteinexpression von Bax und Caspase-3. Zudem konnte im Western Blot auch keine aktivierte Caspase-3 nachgewiesen werden. Somit lagen auf Grundlage von Polymerasekettenreaktion und Western Blot keine Hinweise auf das Eintreten einer Apoptose vor. Die toxische Wirkung der Nanopartikel Graphen und Siliciumdioxid, die bei einem Teil der Zelllinien ab einer Konzentration von 1 mg/ml nachgewiesen werden konnte, beruhte demnach auf Nekrose. / Graphene and silicon dioxide nanoparticles are of interest as drug carriers for controlled drug delivery systems. This thesis is an evaluation of the toxic properties of the nanoparticles Graphene and Silicon dioxide based on tests on cell culture. The Graphene nanoplatelets were 6 to 8 nm thick and 15 µm wide. The Silicon dioxide nanoparticles were spherical and porous with a particle size of 5 to 20 nm. The dose dependent toxicity (concentrations 0,01 mg/ml, 0,1 mg/ml und 1 mg/ml, incubation over 24 hours) was tested on 5 different cell lines (cerebEND, Caco-2, Hep G2, HEK-293, H441). I used cell viability test (CellTiter-Glo Assay, EZ4U-test). In addition, I used PCR (Polymerase chain reaction) and western blot to detect the apoptosis markers Bax and Caspase-3, to see if the nanoparticles cause an apoptosis or a necrosis. For investigating the cell viability, I used the CellTiter-Glo Assay. Graphene nanoplatelets showed from a concentration of 1 mg/ml for the cell lines HEK-293 und H441 a statistically significant decrease of cell viability. CerebEND and Hep G2 cells reacted on Graphene nanoplatelets from a concentration of 1 mg/ml with a clearly decrease in cell viability, but these results were not statistically significant. The cell line Coco-2 showed no decrease in cell viability after the incubation with Graphene nanoplatelets. Silicon dioxide nanoparticles showed from a concentration of 1 mg/ml a statistic significant decrease of cell viability in the cell lines cerebEND, HEK-293 and H441. The Hep G2 cells showed a decrease in cell viability as well, but the results were not statistically significant. The cell line Caco-2 showed no decrease in cell viability after the incubation with Silicon dioxide nanoparticles. Cell viability tests based on the messurement of adsorption like the EZ4U-test, proved not suitable for this setting, because the own color of the nanoparticles interfered with the measurement. In addition, I tested if the nanoparticles caused an apoptosis or a necrosis. The PCR showed with one exception no statistically significant increase in the gene expression of Bax and Caspase-3 and therefore no proof of apoptosis. The western blot showed no statistically significant increase in the protein expression of Bax and Caspase-3. And it detected no activated Caspase-3. There was based on PCR and western blot no sign for the cells to enter in apoptosis. The toxic properties of the nanoparticles Graphene and Silicon dioxide, that was shown in a part of the cell lines from a concentration of 1 mg/ml, was therefore based on necrosis.

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We develop biohybrid magnetic microrobots by electrostatic self-assembly of nonmotile sperm cells and magnetic nanoparticles. Incorporating a biological entity into microrobots entails many functional advantages beyond shape templating, such as the facile uptake of chemotherapeutic agents to achieve targeted drug delivery. We present a single-step electrostatic self-assembly technique to fabricate IRONSperms, soft magnetic microswimmers that emulate the motion of motile sperm cells. Our experiments and theoretical predictions show that the swimming speed of IRONSperms exceeds 0.2 body length/s (6.8 ± 4.1 µm/s) at an actuation frequency of 8 Hz and precision angle of 45°. We demonstrate that the nanoparticle coating increases the acoustic impedance of the sperm cells and enables localization of clusters of IRONSperm using ultrasound feedback. We also confirm the biocompatibility and drug loading ability of these microrobots, and their promise as biocompatible, controllable, and detectable biohybrid tools for in vivo targeted therapy.

Systemic chemotherapy remains the backbone of many cancer treatments. Due to its untargeted nature and the severe side effects it can cause, numerous nanomedicine approaches have been developed to overcome these issues. However, targeted delivery of therapeutics remains challenging. Engineering microrobots is increasingly receiving attention in this regard. Their functionalities, particularly their motility, allow microrobots to penetrate tissues and reach cancers more efficiently. Here, we highlight how different microrobots, ranging from tailor-made motile bacteria and tiny bubble-propelled microengines to hybrid spermbots, can be engineered to integrate sophisticated features optimised for precision-targeting of a wide range of cancers. Towards this, we highlight the importance of integrating clinicians, the public and cancer patients early on in the development of these novel technologies.

Myocardial infarction (MI) is a leading cause of death in the United States, claiming the lives of approximately 500,000 people each year. The infarcted heart undergoes a compensatory process called cardiac remodeling, which adversely changes left ventricular (LV) size and function and eventually may lead to heart failure. To date, the only clinical treatments for this condition include surgical restoration of blood flow to the ischemic region (e.g., angioplasty), or pharmacological treatments (e.g., angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors) which indirectly manage the symptoms of cardiac remodeling. Reperfusion of ischemic heart tissue significantly limits myocardial damage after an MI; however, many MI patients are not candidates for traditional reperfusion surgery. Recently, there has been much interest in non-surgical myocardial reperfusion via pro-angiogenic compounds, specifically vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). Although animal studies using therapeutic VEGF have shown promising results, these results have failed to translate into successful clinical trials. This may be due to the short half-life of VEGF in circulation. Increasing the dose of VEGF may increase its availability to the target tissue, but harmful side-effects remain a concert. Encapsulating VEGF and selectively targeting it to the MI border zone may improve vascularization, cardiac function, reduce adverse remodeling associated with MI, and may avoid harmful side effects associated with systemic delivery. Anti-P-selectin conjugated immunoliposomes containing VEGF were developed to target the P-selectin ligand overexpressed in the infarct border zone in a rat MI model. Serial echocardiography and Doppler imaging were used to characterize evolutionary changes in LV geometry and function over a period of four weeks after MI. At four weeks, hearts were excised and stained to measure vascularization and collagen deposition. Targeted VEGF treatment resulted in significant improvements in fractional shortening at four weeks post-infarction (32.9 ± 2.2% for targeted VEGF treated vs. 16.9 ± 1.4% for untreated MI). Functional improvements in treated MI hearts were accompanied by a 74% increase in perfused vessels in the MI border zone, compared to untreated MI hearts. Left ventricular filling dynamics were significantly improved in the targeted VEGF treated group, which resulted in a decrease in LV end diastolic pressure in VEGF treated hearts (23.4 ± 2.9 mm Hg), compared to untreated MIs (81.8 ± 31.8 mm Hg). At four weeks after infarction, hearts treated with targeted VEGF therapy exhibited a 37% reduction in collagen deposition, compared to untreated MI hearts. Targeted VEGF therapy significantly improves vascularization, cardiac function, and moderates adverse cardiac remodeling after an infarction. / Mechanical Engineering

Η σισπλατίνη αποτελεί ένας ευρέως διαδεδομένο αντικαρκινικό φάρμακο. Ωστόσο προκαλεί σοβαρές παρενέργειες εξαιτίας της έλλειψης εκλεκτικότητας που παρουσιάζει. Για αυτόν το λόγο, γίνεται προσπάθεια ενκαψακίωσης της σισπλατίνης σε νανοφορείς ώστε να επιτευχθεί η εκλεκτική μεταφορά της στον καρκινικό ιστό με μηχανισμούς παθητικής ή ενεργητικής στόχευσης. Στην παρούσα εργασία, παρασκευάστηκαν μαγνητικοί νανοφορείς σισπλατίνας και ελέγχθησαν οι ιδιότητες φόρτωσης με σισπλατίνη και αποδέσμευσης, η κολλοειδής σταθερότητα και η in vitro αντικαρκινική δραστικότητα. Τα νανοσωματίδια (οι μαγνητικοί νανοφορείς) συντέθηκαν με τη σύνδεση του συμπολυμερούς πολυμεθακρυλικό οξύ – πολυαιθυλενογλυκόλη (poly(methacrylic acid)-graft-poly(ethyleneglycol methacrylate)) σε μαγνητικούς νανοκρυσταλλίτες. Ενώ το πολυμεθακρυλικό οξύ παρέχει τις απαραίτητες καρβοξυλομάδες στο σύστημα για τη σύνδεση της σισπλατίνης, οι αλυσίδες πολυαιθυλενογλυκόλης προσφέρουν στερεοχημική σταθεροποίηση στα νανοσωματίδια. Αρχικά παρασκευάστηκαν μαγνητικοί νανοφορείς με διαφορετικούς τύπους p(MAA-g-EGMA) συμπολυμερών τα οποία διέφεραν ως προς το μήκος και την πυκνότητα των αλυσίδων PEG. Τα μαγνητικά νανοσωματίδια παρασκευάστηκαν με τη μέθοδο της υδρολυτικής, αλκαλικής καταβύθισης από μία πρόδρομη ένωση δισθενούς σιδήρου παρουσία των παραπάνω συμπολυμερών. Οι νανοφορείς σε επόμενο στάδιο φορτώθηκαν με τη σισπλατίνη μετά από επώαση τους με το φάρμακο. Επιπλέον διερευνήθηκε η επίδραση του pH στην φόρτωση της σισπλατίνης. Οι νανοφορείς χαρακτηρίστηκαν ως προς την υδροδυναμική τους διάμετρο και το επιφανειακό τους φορτίο μέσω της τεχνικής της δυναμικής σκέδασης φωτός (DLS) και μικροηλεκτροφόρησης αντίστοιχα. Πραγματοποιήθηκαν μελέτες αποδέσμευσης του φαρμάκου από τους νανοφορείς σε διάλυμα φωσφορικών (pH=7.4) στους 37°C. Επιπροσθέτως, διερευνήθηκε η επίδραση της εφαρμογής εξωτερικού εναλλασσόμενου μαγνητικού πεδίου (400 kHz) στην αποδέσμευση της σισπλατίνης από τους νανοφορείς μέσω της πρόκλησης υπερθερμίας. Τέλος, εκτιμήθηκε η κυτταροτοξικότητα των φορτωμένων με σισπλατίνη νανοφορέων και συγκρίθηκε με την κυτταροτοξικότητα των κενών νανοσωματίδιων και του φαρμάκου. Ο έλεγχος κυτταροτοξικότητας πραγματοποιήθηκε μέσω της τεχνικής της κυτταρομετρίας ροής, μετά από χρώση των κυττάρων (Α549, καρκινικά κύτταρα πνεύμονα) με τη χρωστική του ιωδιούχου προπιδίου (PI). Οι p(MAA-g-EGMA) μαγνητικοί φορείς σισπλατίνης που παρασκευάστηκαν στην παρούσα εργασία παρουσίασαν μεγάλη σταθερότητα στο χρόνο ως προς την υδροδυναμική τους διάμετρο και το επιφανειακό τους φορτίο. Επιπλέον παρουσίασαν ικανοποιητική φόρτωση φαρμάκου (6-8%). Η αύξηση του pH (μέχρι 10), η αύξηση των ανιονικών θέσεων (καρβοξυλομάδες) και η μείωση του PEG βρέθηκε να οδηγούν σε αύξηση της φόρτωσης της σισπλατίνης στους νανοφορείς. Παρατηρήθηκε παρατεταμένη αποδέσμευση του φαρμάκου (σισπλατίνης) από τους νανοφορείς, με τον ρυθμό αποδέσμευσης να επηρεάζεται από την πολυμερική σύνθεση των νανοφορέων. Τέλος, οι νανοφορείς παρουσίασαν χαμηλή κυτταροτοξικότητα ενώ οι νανοφορείς φορτωμένοι με σισπλατίνη παρουσίασαν τοξικότητα συγκρίσιμη με αυτήν του φαρμάκου. Με βάση τα ληφθέντα αποτελέσματα, οι p(MAA-g-EGMA) μαγνητικοί νανοφορείς σισπλατίνης έχουν ικανοποιητικές ιδιότητες κολλοειδούς σταθερότητας, φόρτωσης σε φάρμακο και αποδέσμευσης, γεγονός που δικαιολογεί την περαιτέρω διερεύνηση της πιθανής χρησιμοποίησης τους ως φορείς στοχευμένης χορήγησης σισπλατίνας. / Cisplatin is a potent anticacer agent. However, it exhibits serious side effects due to lack of selectivity. Therefore, a more selective cisplatin delivery to tumors is pursued by incorporating cisplatin in targetable nanocarriers. In this work, hybrid magnetic nano-asssemblies loaded with ciplatin were prepared and evaluated in vitro. The nano-assemblies were synthesized through grafting of poly(methacrylic acid)-graft-poly(ethyleneglycol methacrylate) (p(MAA-g-EGMA) on magnetite nanocrystallites. Poly(ethylene glycol) chains confer to the nanocarriers bio-repellent properties. The formation of a distinct second inner polymeric corona with an abundance of carboxylate groups provides the binding sites for cisplatin molecules. Different types of p(MAA-g-EGMA) copolymers with varying length and density of PEG chains were synthesized. Core-shell magnetic nano-assemblies were prepared by hydrolytic alkaline precipitation from a single ferrous molecular precursor in the presence of the above p(MAA-g-EGMA) copolymers . The nano-assemblies were loaded with cisplatin by incubating them with cisplatin solutions of different cisplatin concentration. The nano-assemblies were characterized with regard to their size and zeta potential at different salt concentrations using dynamic light scattering (DLS). The effect of pH on cisplatin loading was investigated. Drug release studies were performed spectrophotometrically in phosphate buffered saline (pH 7.4) at 37°C. The influence of applying an AC magnetic field on the release profile of cisplatin was also investigated using a home-made AC (400 kHz) magnetic field generator 5 mT. The cytotoxicity of blank and cisplatin-loaded nano-assemblies against A549 human lung cancer cell line was assessed by flow cytometric measurement of cellular fluorescence after staining with propidium iodide (PI). The nanocarriers had suitable size properties for intravenous administration and accumulation to tumors based on the enhanced permeability and retention phenomenon (EPR effect). They also were found to exhibit very good colloidal stability, satisfactory cisplatin loading efficiency (around 6% w/w at optimum experimental conditions) and sustained drug release properties, with the rate of release to be significantly increased in response to external AC magnetic fields. Furthermore, the blank nanocarriers did not exhibit cytotoxicity whereas the cisplatin-loaded nanocarriers exhibited comparable to the free ciplatin cytotoxicity against A549 cancer cells. The obtained results justify further evaluation of p(MAA-g-EGMA) nanocarriers as targeted drug delivery system of cisplatin.

Convection-enhanced delivery (CED) is a proven method for targeted drug delivery to the brain that circumvents the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Little study has been conducted in understanding CED in pathological brain states. This is of importance when dealing with chemotherapeutic agent delivery to brain tumors, where vasogenic edema (VE) exists. The current study aims to characterize a model of VE suitable for studying CED.VE was produced in the right hemisphere of the rat brain using multiple infusions of hyperosmotic mannitol (0.25mL/kg/s over 30 seconds) delivered through the right internal carotid artery. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) revealed consistent edema formation and high water levels in the ipsilateral gray and white matter within an hour of the first infusion. Evan's Blue (EB) staining verified that VE has formed. However, apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) and histological examination revealed also that some possible cytotoxic edema formed.This model provides a reproducible technique for generating a large area of edema for CED study. Further studies with lower doses of mannitol, while titrating to changes in ADC and values for fractional water content, may modify this model with a greater component of VE and less cerebral toxicity.