Les structures tectoniques responsables du soulèvement de la Cordillère des Andes à la latitude de Santiago du Chili sont bien connues sur le versant argentin de la chaîne, où s'est développé au cours du Néogène un système chevauchant à vergence Est. Sur le flanc Pacifique de la Cordillère, par contre, les structures tectoniques sont mal connues, et il n'y a pas de consensus pour expliquer le soulèvement de la Cordillère Principale et la formation de la Dépression Centrale dans laquelle s'est installée la ville de Santiago et la majeure partie de la population du Chili. Nous montrons que le raccourcissement dans les Andes du Chili Central a débuté par une inversion tectonique à l'ouest de la chaîne qui a accommodé 16 km de raccourcissement entre 22 et 16 Ma. Ce raccourcissement fait suite à l'extension oligocène, responsable de la formation du bassin extensif de Abanico, lequel a été comblé par de plus de 6 km de roches volcano-sédimentaires. Cette quantité de raccourcissement reste modeste par rapport à celle accommodée sur le flanc oriental de la chaîne, principalement coté argentin, où la tectonique compressive est responsable de ~70 km de raccourcissement survenus entre 16 et 4 Ma.<br />Tectonique compressive et soulèvement des Andes chiliennes n'ont pas été synchrones. Le soulèvement a eu lieu principalement entre 8 et 4 Ma, c'est-à-dire plusieurs millions d'années après l'épisode compressif majeur survenu sur le versant chilien des Andes centrales. En effet, le soulèvement des Andes du Chili central résulte essentiellement du fonctionnement d'un chevauchement majeur à vergence Est, qui émerge en surface en Argentine, et qui est issu du plan de Bénioff à 60 km de profondeur. Cette structure est articulée en plats et rampes, et sa géométrie est contrôlée par la stratification rhéologique de la lithosphère continentale. Cette structure joue un rôle fondamental pendant le développement andin car elle contrôle le transfert des déformations et des contraintes depuis la zone de subduction vers le continent. On observe que l'épisode majeur de soulèvement de la chaîne est corrélé avec la mise en place des porphyres cuprifères géants (gisement de El Teniente) du Chili central.<br />La réponse érosive au soulèvement de la chaîne a été très lente. Nous montrons à l'aide d'âges d'exhumation obtenus par traces de fission sur apatites, et à l'aide de la datation de niveaux volcaniques déposés dans les vallées au cours de leur formation, que l'incision des vallées dans la Cordillère Principale a eu lieu plusieurs millions d'années après le soulèvement de la chaîne. Les contrastes lithologiques, en contrôlant la vitesse d'érosion, ont favorisé le développement d'une vallée parallèle à la côte, entraînant la capture des cours d'eau descendant de la haute chaîne par quelques fleuves majeurs. Ce phénomène a été modélisé à l'aide du code de calcul APERO. Nous pensons donc que la Dépression Centrale n'est pas d'origine tectonique sensu-stricto, mais qu'elle résulte aussi de la mise en place du réseau de drainage et de son contrôle par la lithologie. Son creusement provient de la réponse érosive au grand soulèvement du Miocène supérieur.<br />L'épisode majeur de soulèvement qui a lieu vers 10 Ma ne concerne pas seulement le Chili central. Il s'observe également dans les Andes centrales (Altiplano) et dans l'avant-arc du Pérou central. Pourtant, la vitesse de convergence entre les plaques Nazca et le continent diminue à cette époque. Par contre, la vitesse absolue vers l'ouest de la plaque Amérique du sud augmente, ce qui suggère que la vitesse absolue du continent, plus que la vitesse de convergence, exerce un contrôle majeur sur l'orogenèse andine.<br />Enfin, le Chili Central constitue une région de transition entre deux zones climatiques et géomorphologiques : la région nord, plus sèche, est dominée par les processus constructifs tandis que les processus érosifs sont prépondérants dans la région sud. Ce contraste contribue à la disparition de la Dépression Centrale au nord de 33°S, même si l'influence de la géométrie de la subduction, qui passe à une subduction horizontale au nord de 33°S est aussi à prendre en compte.

The Laramide Rocky Mountains in western U.S.A is an important topographic feature in the continental interior, yet its formation and evolution are poorly constrained. This study uses the oxygen and strontium isotope geochemistry of freshwater bivalve fossils from six Laramide basins in order to reconstruct the spatial evolution of the paleotopography and Precambrian basement erosion in late Cretaceous-early Eocene. In addition it uses the sedimentology, detrital zircon U-Pb geochronology, and isotope paleoaltimetry of early Eocene sedimentary strata to constrain the tectonic setting, paleogeography and paleoclimate of the Wind River basin. Annual and seasonal variation in ancient riverwater δ¹⁸O reconstructed from shell fossils shows that the Canadian Rocky Mountains was 4.5±1.0 km high in late Cretaceous-early Paleocene, and the Laramide ranges in eastern Wyoming reached 4.5±1.3 km high, while the ranges in western Wyoming were 1-2 km high in late Paleocene. The ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios of riverwaters reconstructed from the same fossils show that Proterozoic metamorphic carbonates in the Belt-Purcell Supergroup were not exposed in the Canadian Rocky Mountains during Late Cretaceous-early Paleocene, but that Precambrian silicate basement rock was exposed and eroded in the Laramide ranges during late Paleocene-early Eocene. The sedimentary environment of the early Eocene Wind River basin changed from gravelly fluvial and/or stream-dominated alluvial fan to low-sinuosity fluvial systems. Tectonic uplift of the Washakie and Wind River Range in early Eocene formed the modern paleodrainage system, although the elevation of the basin floor was only ~500 m high at that time, and early Eocene paleoclimate is more humid than modern climate.

1/ Elablissement d'une carte structurale, basée sur des levés de terrain et complétée par l'étude des photographies aériennes 2/ Mise en évidence de plusieurs phases tectoniques dans la partie nord-orientale du Dôme de Barrot. La dernière phase (extension en surface due au soulèvement) était déjà connue . La phase qui l' a précédée est une phase de compression qui a fait naître une schistosité générale et une micro-fissuration dans la partie nord -orientale du massif. Cette phase de compression est très vraisemblablement alpine. Elle a de plus affecté des failles anciennes. Ces derniers accidents sont postérieurs aux dépôts attribués au Werfenien; 3/ L 'analyse des caractères de l'aimantation des pélites permiennes a permis de compléter l' étude structurale et de montrer que l 'ensemble du "dôme " a été affecté par la phase de compression. 4/ On s ait que certains auteurs prennent le Dôme de Barrot comme région de référence pour la détermination du pôle géomagnétique permien.

Terrestrial exoplanets in the canonical habitable zone may have a variety of initial water fractions due to random volatile delivery by planetesimals. If the total planetary water complement is high, the entire surface may be covered in water, forming a "waterworld." On a planet with active tectonics, competing mechanisms act to regulate the abundance of water on the surface by determining the partitioning of water between interior and surface. Here we explore how the incorporation of different mechanisms for the degassing and regassing of water changes the volatile evolution of a planet. For all of the models considered, volatile cycling reaches an approximate steady state after similar to 2 Gyr. Using these steady. states, we find that if volatile cycling is either solely dependent on temperature or seafloor pressure, exoplanets require a high abundance (greater than or similar to 0.3% of total mass) of water to have fully inundated surfaces. However, if degassing is more dependent on seafloor pressure and regassing mainly dependent on mantle temperature, the degassing rate is relatively large at late times and a steady. state between degassing and regassing is reached with a substantial surface water fraction. If this hybrid model is physical, super-Earths with a total water fraction similar to that of the Earth can become waterworlds. As a result, further understanding of the processes that drive volatile cycling on terrestrial planets is needed to determine the water fraction at which they are likely to become waterworlds.

The cause and distribution of spatial variations in the mechanical properties of the continental lithosphere are fundamental questions for modern geology. In this study variations in long-term lithospheric rigidity have been investigated. These investigations used profile- and grid-based flexural models of the lithosphere’s response to geologically imposed topographic, or buried, loads. These models were constrained by topographic and gravity data allowing recovery of best fitting rigidity values. In Oman a Cretaceous ophiolite acts as a significant load on the continental crust. Flexural models along profiles orthogonal to the ophiolite strike show that the observed gravity data can be best modelled by an elastic beam with standard thickness (T_e) of 30 km. Along strike there is shown to be significant variation in the foreland shape and the observed gravity signal. This, it is proposed, relates to the complex tectonic processes which occurred as the ophiolite was obducted. The Himalayan foreland has been the focus of controversy over the recovered long-term rigidity of the continents, with recovered T_e values ranging from 40 to over 90 km. Both profile- and grid-based techniques show that T_e is high (>70 km) in the foreland region. Across the India-Eurasia collisional system as a whole T_e values are variable. Beneath the Tibetan plateau recovered values are generally low (<10 km), while the plateau margins are marked by regions of higher rigidity. Recovered T_e values across the Arabia-Eurasia collisional system range from over 60 km in the foreland region to close to zero beneath the high Zagros mountains. In the eastern part of the foreland, flexural models match the gravity data; however, they disagree with sediment thickness data for the material infilling the foreland. This discrepancy is interpreted in terms of de-coupling of the flexural lithosphere from the shallower crustal levels, caused by the presence of significant salt deposits in this region. Application of grid-based techniques to South America, North America and Europe recover a broad range of Te values from ∼0 to over 90 km. The low T_e values are explained in active orogenic belts in terms of current processes acting to weaken the lithosphere, and in the continental interiors as the relics of past orogenic events. High T_e values in the continental interiors correlate with ancient cratonic cores which have undergone little deformation since their formation in the Archean. This study shows that T_e variations have a critical influence on the development of large compressional orogenic belts. In the Himalayan and Andean orogens there is a correlation between the over-thrusting of the orogenic belt and high T_e foreland regions. Where lower T_e regions are seen, less over thrusting is apparent, and in the case of the India-Eurasia collisional system out-flow of lower crustal material may be occurring.

The Dabbahu-Manda Hararo rift segment is a ~25 x 60 km rift zone in Afar, Ethiopia, where a series of axial dyke intrusions has recently occurred. Basaltic eruptions associated with individual dyking events between 2007-2010 have been fed from fissures along the rift axis and been relatively short-lived events lasting less than 60 hours. The volume of melt delivered to the rift surface by these eruptions has been a minor component of the total melt volume supplied to the shallow crust since the onset of the active rifting phase in 2005 and the current intruded to erupted melt ratio for the 2005-2010 period is ~260:1. This is below typical values for magmatic rift zones and may suggest that further volcanism is likely to occur before this activity ceases. ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar geochronology of basaltic lavas from the flank of the rift and from a region of off-axis volcanism to the west of the rift zone gives ages of 25 – 450 ka. These constrain the development of a prominent axial graben in the northern part of the rift to < 30 ka and based on the age-distribution of lavas across the rift flank suggests that volcanism has been focused to the present neo-volcanic zone for at least 200 ka. Geochemical and isotopic constraints on melt generation suggest ~4-6 % partial melting of fertile mantle beneath rift at depth of ~100-75 km. Lavas erupted at the rift axis and from off-axis volcanoes are derived from a common mantle source, however, axial lavas are shown to represent slightly greater extents of partial melting suggesting a focused mantle melting anomaly, such as those seen at ocean ridges, is forming beneath the rift zone.

The Ethiopian Plateau is one of the few tectonically-active regions on Earth that is situated in continental rift zones. About 1.6 km deep gorge of the Nile was carved by the Blue Nile River on the Ethiopian Plateau, as the plateau has been experiencing continuous uplift and exhumation in the Cenozoic. Here, we used quantitative analysis of longitudinal rive-profile forms and parameters (knickpoint and normalized steepness-index ksn) of the Blue Nile tributaries to tease out regional tectonic signals. 244 knickpoints were examined in the tributaries, majority (>80%) of which are unassociated with lithology or geological structures. Knickpoint distribution throughout the plateau reveals three incision phases. The novel approach of correlation of ksn with mantle tomography suggests that higher and lower ksn values occur above low-velocity and high-velocity zones, respectively, indicating that thermal upwelling beneath the plateau linked to Afar mantle plume largely controls the uplift thus incision of the plateau.

Beneath Keathley Canyon (KC) off the Southern Coast of Louisiana and Texas, allochthonous salt bodies have attained thicknesses of over 7620 m (25000 feet), providing excellent seals and migration pathways for hydrocarbons produced by post-rift sedimentary deposition. This study analyzes a small portion of the KC area, utilizing Petrel Seismic software and well information from the KC102 (Tiber) well. An intra-Miocene wedge, expressed beneath salt, may provide information about movement of allochthonous salt over Wilcox sands, sediment compaction, and hydrocarbon pathways. Progradational sedimentation is the driving force which leads to faulting in the early Miocene, allowing Jurassic salt to rise, spreading laterally and upwards towards the surface, scarring the sediments beneath it in glacier-like form. This intrusion helped to create the proper conditions for formation of a petroleum play system, maintain reservoir quality sands and temperatures, and create a four way closure in the Eocene for prospective well location.

Cette thèse présente les résultats et conclusions issues d’une série de modèles analogiques de systèmes de compressif à différentes échelles : Les expériences réalisées à l’échelle crustale montrent que la symétrie de structures compressives, de type plis et chevauchements avec 3 niveaux de décollement, est fortement dépendante de la vitesse de sédimentation. Les résultats ont été appliqués au Subandin Bolivien. Les expériences réalisées à l’échelle lithosphérique simulent la subduction et l’extension arrière-arc dans un système subissant une compression parallèle à la marge continent-océan (COB). Ces modèles démontrent que la différence de densité entre les plaques continentales et océaniques est le paramètre clé pour expliquer l'extension arrière-arc: plus petite est la différence de densité, plus faible est l'extension produite. Les résultats ont été appliqués al ‘Anatolie. Enfin, ces modèles ont été utilisés pour tester la reproductibilité et les limites de la modélisation analogique. / This thesis presents the results and conclusions from a series of analogue modelling of deformation in compressive and subduction zones (crustal scale and lithospheric scale) : The experiments carried out at the crustal scale show that the symmetry of compressive structures, folds and trust belts with 3 levels of décollement is strongly dependent on the rate of sedimentation. The results were applied to the Subandin Bolivian. The experiments carried out at the lithospheric scale simulate subduction and back-arc extension in a system under compression parallel to the continent - ocean margin (COB). These models show that the density ratio between the continental and oceanic plates is the key factor to explain the back-arc extension: as smaller the difference in density is, less extension occurred. The results were applied to Anatolia. Finally, these models were used to test the reproducibility and limits for analog modeling.

Brandt, Martin B.C. 2011. Imaging the African Superplume – Upper mantle, Tomography and Moment tensor. Ph.D. thesis, Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa. The African Superplume, African Superswell and East African Rift System are amongst the most prominent geophysical features on Earth, but the structure, evolution and interaction between these features is controversial. In my thesis I conducted a range of investigations in an effort to better understand these issues. The thesis presents the investigations into the structure and expressions of these features. These include: (I) A study of the upper mantle shear velocity structure beneath southern Africa to investigate the source of the buoyancy that has powered the Superswell; (II) Statistical hypothesis testing of middle-mantle shear velocity tomographic models to evaluate evidence for links between the Superplume and low velocity features in/near the transition zone; and (III) Computation of three new regional moment tensors for South Africa to assess crustal stress in the Kalahari craton, and its link with mantle structure and dynamics. Waveform data were obtained for the study on the upper mantle shear velocity structure and the moment tensor inversions from the Southern African Seismic Experiment Kaapvaal craton array. For the statistical hypothesis testing on global tomography images, new travel-time data from both global and AfricaArray stations were added to Grand’s global shear velocity data set. The principal findings of this study are summarized below. I. The upper mantle shear velocity structure beneath the Kalahari craton is similar to that of other shields, except for slightly slower velocities from 110–220 km depth. The difference may be due to higher temperatures or a decrease in magnesium number (Mg#). If the slower velocities in the deep lithosphere are due solely to a temperature anomaly, then slightly less than half of the unusually high elevation of the Kalahari craton can be explained by shallow buoyancy from a depleted hot lithosphere. Decreasing the Mg# of the lower lithosphere would increase density and counteract higher temperatures. If an excess temperature of 90 K over a 110 km depth range and a corresponding decrease in Mg# of -2 between the Kalahari and the other cratons are assumed, this would match the seismic velocity difference but would result in essentially no buoyancy difference. We conclude that the high elevation of the Kalahari craton can only be partially supported by shallow mantle buoyancy and must have a deeper source. We determined a thickness of 250±30 km for the mantle transition zone below eastern southern Africa, which is similar to the global average, but the corresponding velocity gradient is less steep than in standard global models (PREM and IASP91). Velocity jumps of 0.16±0.1 km/s (eastern) and 0.21±0.1 km/s (central) across the 410 km discontinuity were found. Our results indicate a thermal or chemical anomaly in the mantle transition zone, but this cannot be quantified due to uncertainty. II. Statistical hypothesis testing on our global tomography images indicated that the African Superplume rises from the core-mantle boundary to at least 1150 km depth, and the upper mantle slow-velocity anomaly extends from the base of the lithosphere to below the mantle transition zone. The model that links the African Superplume with the slow-velocity anomaly in the upper mantle under eastern Africa has an equal probability to an alternative hypothesis with a thin slow-velocity “obstruction zone” at 850 to 1000 km depth. III. Finally, we calculated three regional moment tensors for South Africa and made progress towards resolving the discrepancy between the local and moment magnitudes we observe for the region. Moment tensors/focal mechanisms in southern Africa change from normal faulting (extension) in the northeast near the East African Rift to strike-slip faulting in the southwest. This confirms previous studies stating that not only eastern Africa, but also southern Africa is being actively uplifted by lithospheric modification at its base and/or the African Superplume.