Ice plays an important role in hydraulic processes of rivers in cold regions such as Canada. The formation, progression, recession and breakup of river ice cover known as river ice processes affect river hydraulics, sediment transport characteristics as well as river morphology. Ice jamming and break up are responsible of winter flash floods, river bed modification and bank scour. River ice cover monitoring using terrestrial images from cameras installed on the shores can help monitor and understand river ice processes. In this study, the benefits of terrestrial monitoring of river ice using a camera installed on the shore are evaluated. A time-lapse camera system was installed during three consecutive winters at two locations on the shores of the Lower Nelson River, in Northern Manitoba and programmed to take an image of the river ice cover approximatively every hour. An image analysis algorithm was then developed to automatically extract quantitative characteristics of the river ice cover from the captured images. The developed algorithm consists of four main steps: preprocessing, image registration, georectification and river ice detection. The contributions of this thesis include the development of a novel approach for performing georectification while accounting for a fluctuating water surface elevation, and the use of categorization approach and a locally adaptive image thresholding technique for target detection. The developed algorithm was able to detect and quantify important river ice cover characteristics such as the area covered by ice, border ice progression and ablation rate, and river ice break up processes with an acceptable accuracy.

The Uncompahgre River in Ouray, CO, was modified in 1996 from a braided river system to a meandering river channel. Large boulders of riprap were placed along designed meanders to prevent erosion and enable the development of permanent human structures on the flood plain. Deposition of gravel bars in the modified channel occurs annually during the summer. This gravel is "mined" by the City of Ouray; however, the effects of this excavation and the original modification were never assessed. This study provides an assessment by quantifying cross-sectional area change, cumulative grain-size distributions, shear stresses, slopes, and sinuosities using traditional survey methods. In addition, volume change of a gravel bar inside the modified channel was estimated using extreme oblique photographs (>45 degrees from nadir) that were obtained from nearby cliffs. Close-range photogrammetry was used in the natural channel downstream to evaluate photogrammetric methods using different lenses, image sensors, and camera geometries. Both traditional and photogrammetric methods clearly indicated significant deposition in the modified channel, whereas erosion occurred directly downstream from the modified channel, but did not occur at a reach 1.5 km downstream. In the natural channel, no cross-sectional area change occurred, grains were poorly sorted, and the longitudinal slope was ~four times steeper than the modified channel. Shear stress ratios were used as an erosion threshold, which did not correlate with actual cross-sectional area change, but a decrease in shear stress ratios from May 2011 to September 2011 were associated with erosion. Average RMSE values for DEMs created from extremeoblique photographs of a gravel bar in May 2011 and September 2011 were 0.140 m and 0.324 m, respectively. Using a DEM of difference with a t-statistic filter revealed that 115m3 of gravel was deposited. The Uncompahgre River showed similar geomorphic characteristics to other rivers in southwest Colorado, however, the slope of the natural and modified channels were much steeper than other rivers. Extreme-oblique photography and unconventional sensors both yielded reliable results, showing that these atypical techniques can be used in terrestrial photogrammetric applications such as, post-restoration assessments, as long as proper base-to-height ratios are achieved.

A considerable part of the global pool of terrestrial carbon is stored in high latitude soils. In these soils, repeated cycles of freezing and thawing creates soil motion (cryoturbation) that in combination with other cryogenic disturbance processes may play a profound role in controlling the carbon balance of the arctic soil. Conditions for cryogenic soil processes are predicted to dramatically change in response to the ongoing climate warming, but little is known how these changes may affect the ability of arctic soils to accumulate carbon. In this thesis, I utilize a patterned ground system, referred to as non-sorted circles, as experimental units and quantify how cryogenic soil processes affect plant communities and carbon fluxes in arctic soils. I show that the cryoturbation has been an important mechanism for transporting carbon downwards in the studied soil over the last millennia. Interestingly, burial of organic material by cryoturbation appears to have mainly occurred during bioclimatic events occurring around A.D. 900-1250 and A.D. 1650-1950 as indicated by inferred 14C ages. Using a novel photogrammetric approach, I estimate that about 0.2-0.8 % of the carbon pool is annually subjected to a net downward transport induced by the physical motion of soil. Even though this flux seems small, it suggests that cryoturbation is an important transporter of carbon over centennial and millennial timescales and contributes to translocate organic matter to deeper soil layers where respiration proceeds at slow rates. Cryogenic processes not only affect the trajectories of the soil carbon, but also generate plant community changes in both species composition and abundance, as indicated by a conducted plant survey on non-sorted circles subjected to variable differential frost heave during the winter. Here, disturbance-tolerant plant species, such as Carex capillaris and Tofieldia pusilla, seem to be favoured by disturbance generated by the differential heave. Comparison with findings from a previous plant survey on the site conducted in the 1980s suggest that the warmer temperatures during the last decades have resulted in decreased differential heave in the studied non-sorted circles. I argue that this change in cryogenic activity has increased abundance of plants present in the 1980s. The fact that the activity and function of the non-sorted circles in Abisko are undergoing changes is further supported by their contemporary carbon dioxide (CO2) fluxes. Here, my measurements of CO2 fluxes suggest that all studied non-sorted circles act as net CO2 sources and thus that the carbon balance of the soils are in a transition state. My results highlight the complex but important relationship between cryogenic soil processes and the carbon balance of arctic soils.

This dissertation comprises two distinct journal articles, each contributing significant advancements to recreation ecology by examining the effectiveness of various spatial tools in camping and trail management. The first article leverages strategic spatial planning, considering topography and spacing, to limit camping impacts and enhance visitor experiences. It investigates the long-term effectiveness of a sustainable camping management strategy on the Appalachian Trail, whereby protected area managers select and actively encourage or require visitors to camp on excavated "side-hill" campsites in sloping terrain. One of the most degraded camping locations along the popular Appalachian Trail was selected for this longitudinal study, which, in May 2002, involved the closure of 19 existing campsites in flat terrain, with use shifted to 14 newly constructed side-hill campsites in adjacent sloping terrain. Over the subsequent 17 years, the recovery of the closed campsites and the evolution of the newly established side-hill campsites were monitored and assessed. Results from this study reveal that a multifaceted approach integrating both direct and indirect management actions successfully achieved their management objectives to sustain the site's exceptionally high use while minimizing both resource and social impacts. This study highlights the ability of constructed side-hill campsites to resist expansion over time and provides valuable findings, insights, and "lessons learned" to guide protected area managers in selecting and implementing effective management strategies and actions in other high-use settings. The second study evaluates terrestrial photogrammetry as a spatial tool for trail impact assessment. Protected natural areas like Joshua Tree National Park (JTNP) rely heavily on trails to facilitate visitor access while spatially concentrating environmental impacts to their treads. Assessing the condition of these trails is difficult due to the logistical challenges inherent in conventional field data-gathering techniques. While technological advancements such as Uncrewed Aerial Vehicles (UAV) introduce Structure-from-Motion (SfM) capabilities for trail monitoring, they are not without limitations, including prohibitive costs, legal restrictions, and operational challenges, particularly when monitoring trails enveloped by canopy cover. This study presents a novel approach to trail assessment using terrestrial photogrammetry, wherein a consumer-grade camera captures high-resolution imagery that is processed using SfM techniques. The study compared manual measurements of 46 trail transects in JTNP with measurements from Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) generated from SfM point clouds. The outcomes revealed a high level of agreement between the two methods, with the measurements derived from photogrammetric DEM data exhibiting consistently higher values compared to the field measurements, especially in the central regions of the transects. A statistically significant positive relationship between transect width and mean differences between GIS and field tread incision measurements suggests that the disparity may arise from the sagging of the tape measure across the trail, indicating photogrammetric methods might offer greater accuracy. The paper outlines methods for capturing high-resolution 3D trail data using cost-effective techniques and discusses the practicality and possibilities of using the technique in trail monitoring programs. This has far-reaching implications and positions terrestrial photogrammetry as a compelling alternative to drone-based acquisitions, particularly in areas where UAV operations are restricted, discouraged, or impractical. / Doctor of Philosophy / This dissertation contains two journal articles, each contributing significant advancements to recreation ecology by examining the effectiveness of various spatial tools in camping and trail management. The first paper assesses a sustainable camping strategy on the Appalachian Trail, where managers guide visitors to use designated campsites built into steep terrain, called "side-hill" campsites. One of the most degraded camping locations along the popular Appalachian Trail was selected for this study, and in May 2002, 19 existing campsites in flat terrain were closed, and use was shifted to 14 newly constructed side-hill campsites in nearby steeper terrain. Over 17 years, researchers measured the recovery of the old sites and the evolution and impacts associated with the new ones. The results show the new approach successfully prevented the expansion of campsites, a chronic problem in popular camping areas in flat terrain. Success is attributed not only to the physical relocation of campsites but also to the closing of old campsites with fencing, educating visitors about sustainable camping practices, enforcing regulations, and maintaining the sites. This study highlights the ability of constructed side-hill campsites to resist expansion over time and provides valuable findings, insights, and "lessons learned" to guide protected area managers in selecting and implementing effective management strategies and actions in other high-use settings. The second study in this dissertation introduces an innovative method for assessing the impact on trails in protected areas like Joshua Tree National Park (JTNP). Maintaining hiking trails is crucial as they provide visitor access while spatially concentrating environmental impacts to their treads. However, evaluating their condition is complex due to challenges associated with traditional data collection methods. While drones offer some advancements, they come with their own set of issues, including high costs, legal hurdles, and difficulties operating in areas with dense tree cover. This research presents a novel approach through terrestrial photogrammetry, a technique that uses photos of an object taken at different angles to create detailed 3D models with specialized software, a process known as Structure-from-Motion. The study involved a detailed comparison of traditional manual measurements from 46 trail sections in JTNP to measurements obtained from these 3D models. Results suggest photogrammetric methods might offer greater accuracy than manual measurements. The paper outlines methods for capturing high-resolution 3D trail data using cost-effective techniques and discusses the practicality and possibilities of using the technique in trail monitoring programs. This has far-reaching implications and positions terrestrial photogrammetry as a compelling alternative to drone-based acquisitions, particularly in areas where UAV operations are restricted, discouraged, or impractical.

A considerable part of the global pool of terrestrial carbon is stored in high latitude soils. In these soils, repeated cycles of freezing and thawing creates soil motion (cryoturbation) that in combination with other cryogenic disturbance processes may play a profound role in controlling the carbon balance of the arctic soil. Conditions for cryogenic soil processes are predicted to dramatically change in response to the ongoing climate warming, but little is known how these changes may affect the ability of arctic soils to accumulate carbon. In this thesis, I utilize a patterned ground system, referred to as non-sorted circles, as experimental units and quantify how cryogenic soil processes affect plant communities and carbon fluxes in arctic soils. I show that the cryoturbation has been an important mechanism for transporting carbon downwards in the studied soil over the last millennia. Interestingly, burial of organic material by cryoturbation appears to have mainly occurred during bioclimatic events occurring around A.D. 900-1250 and A.D. 1650-1950 as indicated by inferred 14C ages. Using a novel photogrammetric approach, I estimate that about 0.2-0.8 % of the carbon pool is annually subjected to a net downward transport induced by the physical motion of soil. Even though this flux seems small, it suggests that cryoturbation is an important transporter of carbon over centennial and millennial timescales and contributes to translocate organic matter to deeper soil layers where respiration proceeds at slow rates. Cryogenic processes not only affect the trajectories of the soil carbon, but also generate plant community changes in both species composition and abundance, as indicated by a conducted plant survey on non-sorted circles subjected to variable differential frost heave during the winter. Here, disturbance-tolerant plant species, such as Carex capillaris and Tofieldia pusilla, seem to be favoured by disturbance generated by the differential heave. Comparison with findings from a previous plant survey on the site conducted in the 1980s suggest that the warmer temperatures during the last decades have resulted in decreased differential heave in the studied non-sorted circles. I argue that this change in cryogenic activity has increased abundance of plants present in the 1980s. The fact that the activity and function of the non-sorted circles in Abisko are undergoing changes is further supported by their contemporary carbon dioxide (CO2) fluxes. Here, my measurements of CO2 fluxes suggest that all studied non-sorted circles act as net CO2 sources and thus that the carbon balance of the soils are in a transition state. My results highlight the complex but important relationship between cryogenic soil processes and the carbon balance of arctic soils.

A análise estrutural das descontinuidades e da tectônica rúptil atuante em um maciço rochoso é uma abordagem essencial em vários campos da geologia aplicada. No presente trabalho utilizou-se de técnicas tradicionais de levantamentos estruturais de detalhe via linha de varredura (scanlines) e técnicas de fotogrametria terrestre digital para a análise das descontinuidades de um maciço rochoso. Os resultados obtidos através de duas técnicas de caracterização foram comparados. Os trabalhos foram desenvolvidos em uma mina de metacalcário incluída no Grupo São Roque, situada próximo à borda leste da Bacia do Paraná, e próxima a grandes estruturas transcorrentes do sudeste do Estado de São Paulo. Foram amostrados taludes com direções ortogonais entre si visando uma amostragem que fosse tridimensionalmente representativa. Quando o levantamento foi efetuado através de técnicas tradicionais lineares, as estruturas preferencialmente amostradas foram aquelas com as direções perpendiculares à direção de amostragem. Inversamente as amostragens por fotogrametria terrestre digital evidenciaram as estruturas paralelas ao plano de levantamento. Os resultados foram bastante semelhantes em termos das atitudes das estruturas planares. O levantamento clássico mostrou-se bastante demorados, porém com análise mais direta, enquanto o levantamento fotogramétrico ofereceu uma abrangência maior, porém com tratamento e análise dos dados mais trabalhosos. Embora seja uma nova tecnologia que pode agilizar os levantamentos, um controle in situ se faz necessário. / Structural analysis of discontinuities in a brittle rock mass is an essential approach in various fields of applied geology. In this study we used traditional techniques of structural detail surveys scanlines and techniques of digital terrestrial photogrammetry for the analysis of discontinuities of rock mass. The results obtained by the two characterization techniques were then compared. The work was carried out in a limestone mine included in the São Roque Group, located near the eastern edge of the Paraná Basin, and near large transcurrent shear zones that occurs in the southeastern State of São Paulo. Slopes were sampled within orthogonal directions to each one in order to take a three-dimensional representative sample. When the survey was carried out using traditional linear techniques the structures preferentially sampled were those with the directions perpendicular to the direction of sampling. Conversely, sampling by digital photogrammetry showed that structures parallel to the survey. The results were quite similar in terms of the attitudes of planar structures. The classic survey proved to be very time consuming, but with more direct analysis, while the photogrammetric survey offered a bigger coverage, but with treatment and analysis more hard-working. Although it is a new technology that can speed up the surveys, an in situ control is necessary.

A análise estrutural das descontinuidades e da tectônica rúptil atuante em um maciço rochoso é uma abordagem essencial em vários campos da geologia aplicada. No presente trabalho utilizou-se de técnicas tradicionais de levantamentos estruturais de detalhe via linha de varredura (scanlines) e técnicas de fotogrametria terrestre digital para a análise das descontinuidades de um maciço rochoso. Os resultados obtidos através de duas técnicas de caracterização foram comparados. Os trabalhos foram desenvolvidos em uma mina de metacalcário incluída no Grupo São Roque, situada próximo à borda leste da Bacia do Paraná, e próxima a grandes estruturas transcorrentes do sudeste do Estado de São Paulo. Foram amostrados taludes com direções ortogonais entre si visando uma amostragem que fosse tridimensionalmente representativa. Quando o levantamento foi efetuado através de técnicas tradicionais lineares, as estruturas preferencialmente amostradas foram aquelas com as direções perpendiculares à direção de amostragem. Inversamente as amostragens por fotogrametria terrestre digital evidenciaram as estruturas paralelas ao plano de levantamento. Os resultados foram bastante semelhantes em termos das atitudes das estruturas planares. O levantamento clássico mostrou-se bastante demorados, porém com análise mais direta, enquanto o levantamento fotogramétrico ofereceu uma abrangência maior, porém com tratamento e análise dos dados mais trabalhosos. Embora seja uma nova tecnologia que pode agilizar os levantamentos, um controle in situ se faz necessário. / Structural analysis of discontinuities in a brittle rock mass is an essential approach in various fields of applied geology. In this study we used traditional techniques of structural detail surveys scanlines and techniques of digital terrestrial photogrammetry for the analysis of discontinuities of rock mass. The results obtained by the two characterization techniques were then compared. The work was carried out in a limestone mine included in the São Roque Group, located near the eastern edge of the Paraná Basin, and near large transcurrent shear zones that occurs in the southeastern State of São Paulo. Slopes were sampled within orthogonal directions to each one in order to take a three-dimensional representative sample. When the survey was carried out using traditional linear techniques the structures preferentially sampled were those with the directions perpendicular to the direction of sampling. Conversely, sampling by digital photogrammetry showed that structures parallel to the survey. The results were quite similar in terms of the attitudes of planar structures. The classic survey proved to be very time consuming, but with more direct analysis, while the photogrammetric survey offered a bigger coverage, but with treatment and analysis more hard-working. Although it is a new technology that can speed up the surveys, an in situ control is necessary.

Idag används GNSS eller totalstation till nästan all detaljmätning.Fotogrammetri har länge använts inom lantmäteri men då främst somflygburen fotogrammetri. En inte lika vanlig metod är att mäta i bilderterrestert, det vill säga markbunden fotogrammetri. Inom arkitektur användstekniken för visualisering och dokumentation. Syftet med denna studie är attundersöka om terrester fotogrammetri med multistation är en pålitlig metodför detaljmätning. Den huvudsakliga utrustning som använts för studien är:Leica Nova MS50, Leica Nova MS60 och programvaran Leica Infinity. Testergenomfördes i kontrollerad miljö för att se hur låg avvikelse metoden fick,samt ute i fält för att kunna redogöra avvikelser på långa avstånd och för attavgöra hur användarvänlig metoden är. Multistationen etablerades med fristationsetablering mot befintliga stompunkter i den kontrollerade miljön ochgenom integrerad stationsetablering med GNSS ute i fält. Sedan mättes LeicaHDS signaler samt ett antal synbara detaljer in reflektorlöst och fotograferadesmed multistationens teleskopkamera. Efterberäkningarna gjordes i LeicaInfinity där gemensamma detaljer i bilderna mättes in för att kunna beräknakoordinater för signalerna och objekten. De bildberäknade inmätningarnajämfördes mot de reflektorlöst inmätta för att kunna se hur stor avvikelsemetoderna hade mot varandra. I den kontrollerade miljön var avvikelserna påmillimeternivå och ute i fält på centimeternivå.Som alternativ metod till traditionell detaljmätning eller som komplementfungerar metoden bra. Vinklarna mellan stationerna och detaljen som skallmätas verkar vara viktigare än avstånd till detaljen när det kommer tillkvaliteten på koordinaterna.

The objective of this diploma thesis is creating digital 3D model of Dolní morový hřbitov in Žďár nad Sázavou. The building is measured primarily by classical geodetic methods. The final appearance of the model is created in AutoCAD 2015. Complementary are presented additional possibilities for creating digital models of building objects and their associated advantages and disadvantages. Much attention is paid to the photogrammetric method based on correlation of images, and work with the program 123D Catch and Cinema 4D.

The small, above-ground masonry structures of northwestern New Mexico called "pueblitos" first came to the attention of anthropologists in over a century ago. In 1920, the noted archaeologist A.V. Kidder hypothesized that these masonry structures might have been built by Puebloan refugees fleeing Spanish reprisals in the wake of the Spanish reconquest of New Mexico after the Pueblo Revolt, and he proposed that this hypothesis be tested. Over the next several decades, however, the hypothesis remained untested, but it became both accepted as established fact and the basis for most anthropological, archaeological, and historical reconstructions of Navajo history and cultural development.