國 立 政 治 大 學 研 究 所 碩 士 論 文 提 要 研究所別: 語言學研究所 論文名稱: 中文對話中的異議現象 指導教授: 李櫻 博士 研究生: 林智怡 論文提要內容: 共壹冊，分伍章 在日常對話中，我們觀察到衝突對話是避免出現的，而大致上人們較傾向給予同意，而不傾向行使異議對話。既然在中國社會裡，面子和禮貌是相當受重視的，因此在中文對話中避免行使異議對話尤其重要。雖然在很多情境下，禮貌意味著盡量給予同意而避免異議，但顯然人們並不總是在同意他人。如果一個人不同意他的談話對象所表達的意見，他可以用一些禮貌的方式來避免威脅到對方的顏面。本篇研究的重點就是在調查當說話者要行使異議時，他們對不同的語用策略(pragmatic strategies)及語言特徵(linguistic features)的運用，並將探討說話者對談話原則中的合作原則(CP)及禮貌原則(PP)的遵守或違反。在調查的過程中，性別差異也將列入考慮。 在這篇研究當中，我們收集了九筆日常面對面對話互動的語料：三筆男對男的對話，三筆女對女的對話，三筆男與女的對話。每筆語料都是錄音自兩位熟朋友間大約四十五分鐘的對話。在語料分析的過程中，我們同時採用質性與量化的探討來調查並解釋中文對話中的異議現象。 研究結果顯示在異議時所呈現的語用策略及語言特徵似乎互相矛盾。人們傾向使用較具侵略性及競爭性的糾正策略(correction)來行使他們的異議，反而傾向用較宛轉的語言特徵來表示異議。然而，這並不是一個真正的矛盾，相反的，它可能顯示出年輕的族群不只在乎禮貌的和諧關係，同時也用較直接的語用策略來表示他們之間的一致性(solidarity)。除了用較宛轉的語言特徵來緩和行使異議時所用的較直接的語用策略外，人們在行使異議時也違反一些合作原則來實行禮貌原則或其他對話原則。不論人們如何行使異議，表面上禮貌或不禮貌，違反合作原則來遵守其他的談話原則的最終目的都是得體合宜及禮貌。 至於異議表現的性別差異，雖然一般的印象中是男性的互動比女性較具競爭性、侵略性及好辯，然而我們這裡的研究並不完全和這樣的模式吻合。女性現在較主動表達她們的意見，然而她們自由表達她們的想法只侷限在同樣是女性面前。換句話說，雖然現在的女性比傳統女性受較好的教育，男性也已意識到表現騎士風範及尊重女性的重要性，然而男女之間的權力(power)差異，似乎仍在現代社會中有著影響力。 / Abstract In daily conversation, it can be observed that conflict talk is avoided and agreement is generally preferred over disagreement. Avoidance of disagreement plays an especially important role in Mandarin Chinese conversation, since face and politeness are valued high in Chinese society. Although in many contexts being polite means maximizing areas of agreement and minimizing disagreement, clearly people do not always agree; and if one does not agree with the views expressed by a conversational partner, there are polite options available for him to avoid any possible threat on the interlocutor’s face. The focus of this study is to investigate the speakers’ use of different pragmatic strategies and linguistic features when disagreement arises, and will also discuss the speakers’ observation or violation of the conversational principles of CP and PP. In the process of our investigation, gender difference will be taken into consideration. In this study, we collect 9 dyadic face to face daily conversations: three male-to-male conversations, three female-to-female conversations, and three mixed-gender conversations. Each conversation is given by two close friends and tape-recorded around forty-five minutes. In the process of data analysis, qualitative as well as quantitative analysis will both be adopted to investigate and explain the phenomenon of disagreement in Mandarin Chinese conversation. The results of this study indicate that the performance of the pragmatic strategies and the linguistic features in disagreement seems to be a contradiction. People tend to choose the aggressive and competitive strategy of correction to perform their disagreement, while they tend to choose mitigating features when performing their disagreement. However, this may not be a real contradiction. Instead, it may show that the young group’s concern is not only the harmonious relationships observed in politeness, but also the solidarity signaled by using direct pragmatic strategies. Besides using the mitigating linguistic features to tone down the direct pragmatic strategies in the performance of disagreement, people also violate some CP maxims to uphold the PP and other conversation principles when performing their disagreement. No matter how the disagreement is performed, superficially polite or impolite, the major concern and ultimate achievement of the CP violation for the sake of observation of other linguistic maxims is appropriateness and politeness. As for the gender differences in the performance of disagreement, though the overall impression is that male interaction is typically more competitive, aggressive and argumentative than female, our study here does not completely match with the general pattern. Females are now more active in expressing their opinions; however, they freely express their thought only in front of their own sex. In other words, the power difference between males and females still has its influence in this modern society though now females are better-educated than the traditional women and males have already known the importance of showing chivalry and respect to females.

國語二聲在文獻上多被描述為一調值35的高升調。然而近來不少學者發現台灣地區的國語二聲在閩南語/國語雙語語者族群中有變異的現象：一是323的降升調，二是接近31的低降調。文獻顯示這可能與語言背景(Lo, 2004)和地區(H. J. Hsu,2004)有關。然而對於國語單語語者的研究並不多。此外，性別、母音、聲調環境和句中位置也有可能影響聲調的變異。因此，本研究旨在調查台灣地區的聲調變異現象，藉由語音學實驗的方式，探究國語二聲的變異和語言背景（閩語/國語雙語語者或國語單語語者）的關係。並進一步探討其與社會因素：地區（北、中、南）、性別和語言學因素：母音、聲調環境和句中位置的關係。受試者以17-27歲的年輕族群為主。結果發現台灣地區的年輕人普遍以平調（中平調或低平調）(level)作為二聲變異的主要變體，另一較少數的變體則為低升調(low-rising)，低降調在本研究中並不明顯。這些二聲變體有可能是受到整體調域向下縮窄的影響。而閩語/國語雙語語者的確發出較多的聲調變異，特別是低升調，這可能是受到閩語聲調系統的影響。地區、性別，以及母音、聲調環境和句中位置都會影響二聲變異。本研究進一步證實二聲的聲調變異在台灣年輕族群中的發展，支持了台灣地區國語的調域縮窄的現況。 / Mandarin Tone 2 is canonically described as a high rising tone. However, recently, T2 in Taiwan was found to have other contour types: the dipping contour (323) and falling (31) variants (Fon, 1997; H. J. Hsu, 2004), with the former being considered as a normal rising tone, but the later totally losing the rising feature. Those were all found in Taiwanese (Tw)-Taiwan Mandarin(TM) bilinguals. The reasons causing this tonal variation is supposed to be relating to the language backgrounds and other social and linguistic factors from previous studies. However, no study has confirmed those correlated factors, especially the comparison between Tw-TM bilinguals and TM monolinguals. This study thus aims to discover what the T2 variation is and where it occurs. By sampling 24 subjects, aged 17-27, with half Tw-TM bilinguals and half TM monolinguals, we conducted three experiments to test the T2 in different contexts. Results showed that instead of the falling variant, more speakers produced a level variant and a small amount of low-rising variant. Besides, the bilinguals did produce more T2 variations than the monolinguals. The results indicated that language background does affect the T2 variation among young speakers in Taiwan. Moreover, the high percentage of the Level variant support the finding of a narrower tonal range of TM, compared to the standard Mandarin. Other factors, such as genders, regions, vowels, tonal environments and sentence positions were also found to have influence on T2 variations.

Thesis (D. Min.)--Trinity Evangelical Divinity School, Deerfield, Ill., 1999. / Abstract. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 199-202).

The importance of China as world power has led to a growing interest in and demand for learning Mandarin as a Foreign Language (MFL) worldwide. This study focuses on a comparative study of the provision of MFL in higher education in China and in South Africa. A conceptual framework was provided by examining theories of language policy planning and second language or foreign language acquisition as well as an overview of MFL provision in Chinese and South African higher education. MFL policy in China is characterised as a diffusion policy driven by economic globalisation, „soft power‟ and culture, and supported by legislation, funding and implementation. In South Africa, no specific policy underlies MFL, although motivation for MFL provision is given through strategic economic relations between South Africa and China. Against this background, a mixed-method inquiry conducted in two phases examined MFL at three purposefully selected universities in China and at the four university providers in South Africa. Phase One investigated lecturer perceptions of MFL tuition using a researcher-designed questionnaire; Phase Two explored student experiences of MFL using semi-structured interviews with purposefully selected MFL students in both countries. Findings indicated similarities in lecturer profile and differences in lecturers' perceptions regarding institutional support for MFL, particularly in institutions offering degrees in MFL, the MFL classroom environment and the curriculum. Student participants identified differences in studying MFL abroad in China and at home in South Africa in terms of class scheduling, peer and tutor support, student enrolments and design of educational programmes. All language skills were acquired more rapidly in the immersion learning context in China than in the first language dominant South African context, especially communication skills. Similarities were demonstrated in the emotional dimension of learning a new language, the main needs of MFL students, the opportunity to use or speak Mandarin, motivation to study Mandarin, and the challenges characteristic of Mandarin as a language. Recommendations for improvement of practice were given in terms of immersion context creation, opportunity to learn support, Confucius Institute facilities and exchange programmes for study abroad, lecturer and tutor improvement, and the establishment of an incentive to learn mechanism in South Africa. / Educational Studies / D. Ed. (Comparative Education)

This study examines the perception of Mandarin lexical tones by native speakers of Greek who are naïve to Mandarin. Being able to discriminate between Mandarin lexical tones is essential for effective and accurate communication in the language. While there is an increasing number of research studying the perception of Mandarin tone by speakers from various backgrounds, the Greek language has not received much attention. By employing an AXB discrimination task, this study tested the perception of Mandarin tone pairs T1-T2, T1-T4, and T2-T3 by native speakers of Greek. Due to their acoustic similarity, these three pairs are often found to be the most confusing tone contrasts for non-native listeners of Mandarin. Greek speakers (NG) had the highest accuracy for T1-T2 (0.88), and similar accuracy rates for T1-T4 (0.83) and T2-T3 (0.82). Subsequently, the Greek speakers were divided into two groups based on their experience with learning or playing a musical instrument, as this is a factor that has been shown to affect tone perception. Compared to non-musicians (NG1), the group of musicians (NG2) had higher accuracy rates for T1-T2 and T1-T4, and a similar accuracy rate for T2-T3. For NG1, from easiest to hardest, the accuracy rates were: T1-T2(0.93)>T1-T4(0.92)>T2-T3(0.82). For NG2, the accuracy rates were: T2-T3(0.82)≥T1-T2(0.82)>T1-T4(0.74). These findings could improve our understanding in regard to the factors that can affect the perception of Mandarin lexical tone by native Greek speakers, which might contribute to language pedagogy. / 本论文旨在研究以零基础普通话希腊语母语人士对普通话声调范畴的感 知能力。为了进行有效和准确的研究，本文实施了普通话发音辨别实验。虽 然声调范畴感知能力的研究越来越多，但以希腊语母语者为研究对象的研究 并不多见。通过 AXB 发音辨别测试，本论文调查了希腊语为母语的人士对普 通话 T1-T2、T1-T4、T2-T3 三组声调组合的辨识感知。由于声音的相似性， 这三对声调组合对非普通话母语的听众经常被发现是最容易被混淆的。结果 发现，讲希腊语的人士（NG）对这三组声调组合辨识的准确度为：T1-T2 （0.88）是最高的，T1-T4（0.83）和 T2-T3（0.82）是相似的。有研究认为 音乐训练可以影响对声调的感知，所以接着实验参与者根据学习或演奏乐器 的经验又被分成两组。与非音乐背景人群（NG1）相比，有音乐背景人群 （NG2）T1-T2 和 T1-T4 的准确率更高，但对 T2-T3 组合的结果是一样的。若 从最简单到最难排序，有音乐背景人群（NG1）的准确度是：T1-T2 （0.93）>T1-T4（0.92）>T2-T3（0.82）。而无音乐背景人群（NG2），准 确度是：T2-T3（0.82）≥T1-T2（0.82）>T1-T4（0.74）。这些发现可以帮 助理解以希腊语为母语的人对普通话声调感知困难的根源，所以对语言教学 法的相关讨论会有所贡献。

La résolution de problème est souvent utilisée comme outil de mesure des capacités cognitives individuelles chez les animaux non-humains, puisqu’elle permet d’étudier leurs capacités d’apprentissage opérant et d’innovation. Les capacités cognitives diffèrent selon les espèces et les individus, et leur permettent de maximiser leur aptitude. Par exemple, chez les oiseaux et les mammifères, les espèces avec de plus gros cerveaux relatifs possèderaient de meilleures capacités d’apprentissage sociale et d’innovation, qui leur permettent de mieux s’adapter à un environnement nouveau. Malgré l’utilisation répandue des diamants mandarins dans la recherche en écologie comportementale, l’impact du sexe sur la performance de résolution de problème et la répétabilité des performances ont souvent été négligés, et aucune étude, à notre connaissance, ne s’est intéressée à leur performance en contexte de résolution de problème coopérative. Dans le cadre de notre étude, nous avons décidé d’aborder ces différents aspects pour améliorer notre compréhension des capacités cognitives et de la coopération chez cette espèce modèle. Nous avons confronté des diamants mâles et femelles à trois tests de résolution de problème individuelle (test de la ficelle, test de la barre et test du couvercle) et un test de résolution de problème coopérative. Pour ce dernier, nous avons séparé les individus en deux groupes : couples sociaux et couples expérimentaux, afin de manipuler le lien social entre individus. Les couples sociaux étaient composés d’un mâle et d’une femelle ayant cohabité pendant 7 jours, alors que les couples expérimentaux étaient composés d’un mâle et d’une femelle ne s’étant jamais rencontrés auparavant. Bien que nous nous attendions à ce que le sexe n’ait pas d’impact sur la performance de résolution, nos résultats ont révélé que, en moyenne, les mâles étaient plus rapides pour résoudre un test de résolution de problème individuelle. Ces résultats étaient principalement attribuables à leur performance sur le deuxième test de résolution de problème individuelle (test de la barre). Nous pensons que cette différence pourrait être due à un niveau de persistance plus élevé chez les mâles et/ou à l’impact de la sélection sexuelle sur les performances cognitives, et que ces aspects devraient être davantage explorés dans de futures études. Ensuite, en accord avec nos attentes, nos résultats ont confirmé l’hypothèse de la répétabilité contextuelle, selon laquelle les performances de résolution sont constantes entre différentes tâches impliquant le même processus cognitif. Enfin, nous nous attendions à ce que les couples sociaux soient plus performants que les couples expérimentaux sur le test de résolution de problème coopérative, puisque nous les pensions davantage capables de synchronisation et de coordination comportementale. Or, nous avons trouvé des résultats suggérant le contraire, et nous avons constaté que la performance du couple au test de résolution de problème coopérative, était principalement expliquée par les performances de résolution individuelle de chaque partenaire. Des questions subsistent quant aux raisons pour lesquelles les couples expérimentaux ont mieux performé que les couples sociaux. Est-ce qu’une différence de motivation pourrait être à l’origine de ces résultats ? De futures études seront nécessaires pour nous éclairer. Malgré les questions en suspens, nos résultats contribuent à enrichir nos connaissances sur les capacités cognitives individuelles, la résolution de problème ainsi que la coopération. / Problem solving is often used as a tool for measuring individual cognitive abilities in non-human animals, since it enables us to study their operant learning and innovation capacities. Cognitive capacities differ between species and individuals, enabling them to maximize their abilities. For example, in birds and mammals, species with larger relative brains are said to have better social learning and innovation capacities, enabling them to adapt better to new environments. Despite the widespread use of zebra finches in behavioral ecology research, the impact of sex on problem-solving performance and the repeatability of performance have often been overlooked and, to our knowledge, no studies have investigated their performance in cooperative problem-solving contexts. In our study, we decided to address these different aspects to improve our understanding of cognitive abilities and cooperation in this model species. We tested male and female zebra finches in three individual problem-solving tests (string test, bar test and lid test) and one cooperative problem-solving test. For the latter, we separated the individuals into two groups: social pairs and experimental pairs, to manipulate the social bond between individuals. Social pairs were made up of a male and a female who had cohabited for 7 days, while experimental pairs were made up of a male and a female who had never met before. While we expected sex to have no impact on solving performance, our results revealed that, on average, males were faster at solving individual problem-solving tests. These results were mainly attributable to their performance on the second individual problem-solving test (bar test). We believe that this difference could be attributable to a higher level of persistence in males and/or the impact of sexual selection on cognitive performance, and that these aspects should be explored in future studies. Secondly, in line with our expectations, our results confirmed the contextual repeatability hypothesis, according to which solving performance is consistent across trials requiring the same cognitive process. Finally, we expected social pairs to perform better than experimental pairs on the cooperative problem-solving test, since we expected them to be more capable of synchronisation and behavioral coordination. . However, we found results suggesting the opposite, and the performance of the pairs on the cooperative problem-solving task was mainly explained by the ability of each partner to solve a problem. Questions remain as to why the experimental pairs performed better than the social pairs. Could a difference in motivation be behind these results? Future studies are needed to shed light on this. Despite the outstanding questions, we believe that our results contribute to our knowledge of individual cognitive abilities, problem solving and cooperation.

China's linguistic diversity is characterized by large diversity, featuring seven major dialect groups that are not mutually intelligible, each containing numerous subdialects. This complexity has led to the establishment of Standard Mandarin Chinese (SMC) as the official lingua franca to prevent communication challenges. The establishment of SMC, led to diglossia—using different dialects based on the context and setting. Furthermore, recent studies indicate a shift away from diglossia towards a dominant use of SMC, particularly among the younger generation, influenced by factors such as urbanization, migration, and language policies. This study explores language attitudes and family language practices focusing on SMC and the Xiang dialect, a lesser-studied dialect spoken in Hunan. The study examined two groups that conform to the diglossia of speaking Xiang and SMC, one permanently residing in Sweden and the other in Hunan. The study aimed to identify differences or similarities in their instrumental and integrative language attitudes and to determine how these attitudes influence language choice in a family setting. A qualitative approach was applied, using semi-structured interviews. The findings indicate that the group in Sweden holds weak instrumental attitudes towards the Xiang dialect, perceiving it as offering no practical benefits within the local Chinese community in Sweden. However, the respondents hold integrative attitudes, associating the dialect with a sense of local identity and pride. In contrast, participants in Hunan show a stronger connection to the Xiang dialect, expressing deeper integrative attitudes. Both groups, however, expressed strong instrumental attitudes towards SMC, valuing it for its educational and career benefits and its wide usage. In terms of family language practices, both groups generally choose SMC while speaking to their children, driven mainly by the practical advantages that SMC provides. / 中国的语言具有多样性的特点，当中包含七大主要方言群，这些方言群之间往往不具有相互理解性，每个方言群下还包含许多子方言。这种复杂性导致了普通话（SMC）作为官方通用语的确立，以防止沟通上的困难。普通话的确立导致了语言的双重使用现象——根据不同的语境和环境使用不同的方言。此外，最近的研究表明，尤其是在年轻一代中，从双语使用的情况改变以普通话为主导，这种变化是受到城市化、迁移和语言政策等因素的影响。 本研究探讨了普通话和一种较少研究的方言——湖南湘方言的语言态度和家庭语言实践。研究检视了两个群体，这两个群体都遵循使用湘方言和普通话的双语模式，其中一个群体常驻瑞典，另一个常驻湖南。本研究旨在识别他们在工具性和整合性语言态度上的差异或相似之处，以及这些态度如何影响在家庭环境中的语言选择。本研究采用了定性方法，使用半结构化访谈来收集资料。 研究发现，瑞典的群体对湘方言持有较弱的工具性态度，认为在瑞典的本地华人社区中，湘方言没有实际的用处。不过，受访者对湘方言持有整合性态度，将该方言与地方身份和自豪感联系起来。相比之下，湖南的参与者对湘方言有更强烈的联系，表现出更深的整合性态度。然而，两个群体都对普通话表达了强烈的工具性态度，重视其在教育和职业上的好处及其广泛的使用性。 在家庭语言实践方面，两个群体一般在与孩子交流时选择使用普通话，主要是由于普通话能给孩子提供的实际优势。