In the early 20th century, there were few therapeutic options for mental illness and asylum numbers were rising. This pessimistic outlook favoured the rise of the eugenics movement. Heredity was assumed to be the principal cause of mental illness. Politicians, scientists and clinicians in North America and Europe called for compulsory sterilisation of the mentally ill. Psychiatric genetic research aimed to prove a Mendelian mode of inheritance as a scientific justification for these measures. Ernst Rüdin’s seminal 1916 epidemiological study on inheritance of dementia praecox featured large, systematically ascertained samples and statistical analyses. Rüdin’s 1922–1925 study on the inheritance of “manic-depressive insanity” was completed in manuscript form, but never published. It failed to prove a pattern of Mendelian inheritance, counter to the tenets of eugenics of which Rüdin was a prominent proponent. It appears he withheld the study from publication, unable to reconcile this contradiction, thus subordinating his carefully derived scientific findings to his ideological preoccupations. Instead, Rüdin continued to promote prevention of assumed hereditary mental illnesses by prohibition of marriage or sterilisation and was influential in the introduction by the National Socialist regime of the 1933 “Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring” (Gesetz zur Verhütung erbkranken Nachwuchses).

The purpose of this study is to expand and variegate the general history of psychiatric care in Sweden in the late nineteenth century. My objects of interest are the first two head doctors of Stockholm’s hospital and their handwritten annual reports to the directorate of the hospital from the year of 1862 to the year of 1889. During this time the psychiatric care in Sweden went through a number of changes. Laws against treating patients of the asylums with physical restraint and force were passed, and humanitarian and philanthropic movements were a big part of these changes. In Sweden, the psychiatric care was expanding at this time. The old asylums were condemned by humanitarian intellectuals for its horrible conditions, and the doctors called out for new modern asylums. The modern day general history of the expansion of asylums is often in some way linked to Michel Foucault’s theory of the psychiatric asylum as an institution of social control. One of the main undertakings in this essay is to test this theory in the context of a late nineteenth century asylum of Stockholm. Another ambition in this essay is to establish which other characteristic structures of the nineteenth century that appear to have influenced the psychiatric care. Testing Foucault’s theory of social control has in this study proven to call for the need of additional theories concerning both class and gender structures. To expose the nuances of the general history of the asylum I have been using a microhistorical approach, while still integrating with the macro-leveled general history and the control theory of Michel Foucault.Focus in this research is on the two first head doctors of Stockholm’s first real asylum. In this essay, I analyse their description of patient labour and the use of physical restraint/force methods as treatments. The results of my research show that the upholding of social control and moral standards was a big part of the head doctors profession during the second half of the nineteenth century in the Swedish asylum. The results also show that the patients were treated differently based on gender and which of the three different payment classes of the asylum that they belonged to.

Este trabalho constrói uma história crítica da formação do Serviço de Psicoterapia do Instituto de Psiquiatria do Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo entre 1962 e 1965. O Serviço foi criado como um espaço institucional para a prática e para o saber em psicoterapia dentro de um dos principais hospitais psiquiátricos brasileiros, num período muito turbulento da história nacional, atravessado pelo golpe civil-militar de 1964. A psicoterapia como prática e saber situase numa zona de fronteiras entre a psiquiatria, psicanálise e a psicologia. Para compreender essa posição, recorreu-se ao conceito de vagueza, que mostra a necessidade de contextualizar a psicoterapia para precisar seu significado. Não há uma história crítica da psicoterapia no Brasil, e mesmo estudos internacionais não focalizam essa complexidade. Traçou-se uma rota de pesquisa que levou à necessidade de compreender como se comportavam os principais agentes envolvidos na formação do Serviço dentro do hospital psiquiátrico chefiado por Antônio Carlos Pacheco e Silva, destacado psiquiatra da época, reconhecido por seu peso político e por suas ideias higienistas e eugenistas e crítico da psicanálise, a corrente de psicoterapia mais relevante da época. Para entender os vários eixos históricos da formação do Serviço, estudaram-se a estruturação da psiquiatria, da psicanálise e da psicologia como saberes, técnicas e instituições em São Paulo entre 1936 e 1970 e também a forma como os agentes circulavam entre essas áreas. Único ramo de psicoterapia em São Paulo até os anos 1950, a psicanálise atraía muitos médicos e psiquiatras e influenciou Jorge Wohwey Ferreira Amaro na formação do Serviço, embora ele afirme que procurou criar um espaço eclético, onde pudessem circular várias linhas de psicoterapia, que transformariam a \"achoterapia\" praticada no hospital - onde cada psiquiatra agia como lhe parecia - num trabalho baseado em referenciais técnicos e teóricos mais estruturados. O estudo analisa como esses campos dialogavam com a sociedade da época e em que medida a situação macroscópica se refletia no microcosmo do Hospital e do Serviço. Discutindo eventos importantes como o concurso para primeira cátedra de psiquiatria na FMUSP, em 1936, o I Congresso Latino-Americano de Saúde Mental, em 1954, o V Congresso Latino-Americano de Psicoterapia de Grupo, em 1967, e o V Congresso Internacional de Psicodrama e o I Congresso de Comunidade Terapêutica, em 1970, foi possível entender a dinâmica das profissões da psique na época: suas concorrências e seu posicionamento político e institucional, que permitiram entender que a criação do Serviço de Psicoterapia Médica da Clínica Psiquiátrica da FMUSP marcou a posição médica no campo psi de então. Ainda que os discursos procurassem situá-lo na contracorrente de seu tempo e mesmo que o Serviço representasse uma abertura para a circulação de saberes, técnicas e profissionais, ele se inseriu na estrutura da instituição psiquiátrica sem questionar as práticas ou as ideias vigentes / The present study weaves a critical story of how the Psychotherapy Center at the Institute of Psychiatry of Hospital das Clínicas of the University of São Paulo Medical School (FMUSP) was set up from 1962 to 1965. The Center was created as an institutional space for psychotherapy practice and knowledge sharing in one of the main psychiatric hospitals in Brazil during a very turbulent period in the country\'s history, marked by the 1964 coup d\'état. Psychotherapy as practice and knowledge lies in a border zone between psychiatry, psychoanalysis and psychology. In order to understand this positioning, the concept of vagueness was used; which indicates the need to have psychotherapy contextualized to define its meaning. There is no such a thing as a critical history of psychotherapy in Brazil, nor international studies that focus on this complexity. Here, the research route was defined in such a way that there was a need to understand the behavior of the main players involved in setting up the Center at the psychiatric hospital; which was then headed by Antônio Carlos Pacheco e Silva, a prominent psychiatrist who was famous for his political influence, his hygienic and eugenic ideas, and for his criticism of psychoanalysis, the most relevant branch of psychotherapy at the time. In order to understand the different historical axes that had an impact on the Center, the concepts of psychiatry, psychoanalysis and psychology as knowledge, techniques and institutions in São Paulo from 1936 to 1970 were explored, as well as the way in which the aforementioned players moved around these fields. As the only branch of psychotherapy in São Paulo until the 1950s, psychoanalysis attracted many physicians and psychiatrists, and influenced Jorge Wohwey Ferreira Amaro when setting up the Center. He states, nonetheless, that his aim was to create an eclectic space where several lines of psychotherapy could coexist and transform the \"guess-based therapy\" practiced at the hospital - in which psychiatrists acted as they pleased - into something grounded on a more structured technical and theoretical framework. This thesis analyzes how these fields dialogued with society and to what extent the macro environment impacted the Hospital/Center\'s microcosm. Discussing important events such as the competition for the first psychiatry chair at the University of São Paulo Medical School in 1936, the I Latin-American Congress on Mental Health in 1954, the V Latin-American Congress on Group Psychotherapy in 1967, the V International Congress on Psychodrama and the I Congress of Therapeutic Community in 1970, it was possible to identify the dynamics of the psyche professions at the time: their competition, and their political and institutional positioning, which led to the understanding that the creation of the Medical Psychotherapy Center at the Psychiatric Clinic of FMUSP marked the medical stance in the psych field of the time. Although discourses sought to depict the Center as swimming against the current of its time, and though it might have represented an opportunity for the circulation of knowledge, techniques and professionals, it embedded itself into the structure of the psychiatric institution without challenging the practices or ideas in for ideas in force

The aim of the present thesis is to study radical criticism of psychiatry in public discussion in Sweden between 1968 and 1973. Although it was not the first time psychiatry had been challenged, the debate during these years displayed an unprecedented intensity. What is mental illness – a myth, an etiquette, an illusion? Is psychiatry a means of social control? Such were the questions raised at the time. In my thesis, I study the contexts as well as the arguments of these discussions. To this end, a great variety of sources have been consulted: books, newspapers, magazines, films etc. In part, the Swedish debate on psychiatry ran parallel to international discussions on the topic, which have been regarded as a manifestation of anti-psychiatry. This standpoint is often associated with psychiatrists such as R. D. Laing, David Cooper and Thomas Szasz. In my thesis, I challenge the concept of anti-psychiatry, arguing that other concepts are better suited to capture the diversity of the debate in all its nuances. Thus, I make use of radical and reformatory criticism – concepts which have been suggested by the sociologist Tommy Svensson – while also seeking to develop them further. In addition to the international perspective, the psychiatry debate must also be interpreted in its specifically Swedish context. One aspect of this is the Swedish tradition of Government Official Reports: psychiatry had been subject to many investigations prior to the debate in the 1960s and 1970s, and others would follow in its wake. Another characteristic feature of the Swedish debate is two events that formed very suitable targets for critique: Sociopatutredningen and Mentalhälsokampanjen. These events seemed to confirm the most farreaching concerns of the radical critics, namely that psychiatry is a means of social control.

This thesis explores some aspects of the cultural history of the railway during the latter half of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth. It argues that the railway was of central importance in creating and shaping Victorian attitudes to the machine and to mechanized civilization in a world increasingly dominated by large scale-technologies. In particular, it explores the significance of negative responses to the railway - fear, anxiety, nervousness, alarm, revulsion - in influencing a range of social, cultural and medical responses to the perceived degenerative threat of technological civilization. The four chapters of the thesis are organized so as to provide a progressive tightening of focus on particular aspects of the railway's significance in this context. The first, most wide-ranging, chapter explores the ways in which the Victorian railway was perceived as both an icon of progress and civilization and as a disruptive, threatening, destructive force. In particular, it seeks to establish the deep-rooted, enduring and influential nature of the fear and anxiety which the railway provoked. The second chapter is concerned with the railway journey as an experience, relating the ambivalence with which the railway was viewed to the journey as a sensory, physical and mental experience. The third chapter focuses on the accident as the most dramatic instance of the dangers of the railway, and relates its significance in contemporary culture to the wider context of the fears provoked by increasingly powerful and potentially destructive technologies. The fourth and final chapter explores the phenomenon of 'railway spine', the obscure nervous condition supposedly suffered by railway accident victims who had seemingly received no actual organic injury, but nonetheless displayed nervous, mental and physical symptoms of serious bodily disorder.

Este trabalho constrói uma história crítica da formação do Serviço de Psicoterapia do Instituto de Psiquiatria do Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo entre 1962 e 1965. O Serviço foi criado como um espaço institucional para a prática e para o saber em psicoterapia dentro de um dos principais hospitais psiquiátricos brasileiros, num período muito turbulento da história nacional, atravessado pelo golpe civil-militar de 1964. A psicoterapia como prática e saber situase numa zona de fronteiras entre a psiquiatria, psicanálise e a psicologia. Para compreender essa posição, recorreu-se ao conceito de vagueza, que mostra a necessidade de contextualizar a psicoterapia para precisar seu significado. Não há uma história crítica da psicoterapia no Brasil, e mesmo estudos internacionais não focalizam essa complexidade. Traçou-se uma rota de pesquisa que levou à necessidade de compreender como se comportavam os principais agentes envolvidos na formação do Serviço dentro do hospital psiquiátrico chefiado por Antônio Carlos Pacheco e Silva, destacado psiquiatra da época, reconhecido por seu peso político e por suas ideias higienistas e eugenistas e crítico da psicanálise, a corrente de psicoterapia mais relevante da época. Para entender os vários eixos históricos da formação do Serviço, estudaram-se a estruturação da psiquiatria, da psicanálise e da psicologia como saberes, técnicas e instituições em São Paulo entre 1936 e 1970 e também a forma como os agentes circulavam entre essas áreas. Único ramo de psicoterapia em São Paulo até os anos 1950, a psicanálise atraía muitos médicos e psiquiatras e influenciou Jorge Wohwey Ferreira Amaro na formação do Serviço, embora ele afirme que procurou criar um espaço eclético, onde pudessem circular várias linhas de psicoterapia, que transformariam a \"achoterapia\" praticada no hospital - onde cada psiquiatra agia como lhe parecia - num trabalho baseado em referenciais técnicos e teóricos mais estruturados. O estudo analisa como esses campos dialogavam com a sociedade da época e em que medida a situação macroscópica se refletia no microcosmo do Hospital e do Serviço. Discutindo eventos importantes como o concurso para primeira cátedra de psiquiatria na FMUSP, em 1936, o I Congresso Latino-Americano de Saúde Mental, em 1954, o V Congresso Latino-Americano de Psicoterapia de Grupo, em 1967, e o V Congresso Internacional de Psicodrama e o I Congresso de Comunidade Terapêutica, em 1970, foi possível entender a dinâmica das profissões da psique na época: suas concorrências e seu posicionamento político e institucional, que permitiram entender que a criação do Serviço de Psicoterapia Médica da Clínica Psiquiátrica da FMUSP marcou a posição médica no campo psi de então. Ainda que os discursos procurassem situá-lo na contracorrente de seu tempo e mesmo que o Serviço representasse uma abertura para a circulação de saberes, técnicas e profissionais, ele se inseriu na estrutura da instituição psiquiátrica sem questionar as práticas ou as ideias vigentes / The present study weaves a critical story of how the Psychotherapy Center at the Institute of Psychiatry of Hospital das Clínicas of the University of São Paulo Medical School (FMUSP) was set up from 1962 to 1965. The Center was created as an institutional space for psychotherapy practice and knowledge sharing in one of the main psychiatric hospitals in Brazil during a very turbulent period in the country\'s history, marked by the 1964 coup d\'état. Psychotherapy as practice and knowledge lies in a border zone between psychiatry, psychoanalysis and psychology. In order to understand this positioning, the concept of vagueness was used; which indicates the need to have psychotherapy contextualized to define its meaning. There is no such a thing as a critical history of psychotherapy in Brazil, nor international studies that focus on this complexity. Here, the research route was defined in such a way that there was a need to understand the behavior of the main players involved in setting up the Center at the psychiatric hospital; which was then headed by Antônio Carlos Pacheco e Silva, a prominent psychiatrist who was famous for his political influence, his hygienic and eugenic ideas, and for his criticism of psychoanalysis, the most relevant branch of psychotherapy at the time. In order to understand the different historical axes that had an impact on the Center, the concepts of psychiatry, psychoanalysis and psychology as knowledge, techniques and institutions in São Paulo from 1936 to 1970 were explored, as well as the way in which the aforementioned players moved around these fields. As the only branch of psychotherapy in São Paulo until the 1950s, psychoanalysis attracted many physicians and psychiatrists, and influenced Jorge Wohwey Ferreira Amaro when setting up the Center. He states, nonetheless, that his aim was to create an eclectic space where several lines of psychotherapy could coexist and transform the \"guess-based therapy\" practiced at the hospital - in which psychiatrists acted as they pleased - into something grounded on a more structured technical and theoretical framework. This thesis analyzes how these fields dialogued with society and to what extent the macro environment impacted the Hospital/Center\'s microcosm. Discussing important events such as the competition for the first psychiatry chair at the University of São Paulo Medical School in 1936, the I Latin-American Congress on Mental Health in 1954, the V Latin-American Congress on Group Psychotherapy in 1967, the V International Congress on Psychodrama and the I Congress of Therapeutic Community in 1970, it was possible to identify the dynamics of the psyche professions at the time: their competition, and their political and institutional positioning, which led to the understanding that the creation of the Medical Psychotherapy Center at the Psychiatric Clinic of FMUSP marked the medical stance in the psych field of the time. Although discourses sought to depict the Center as swimming against the current of its time, and though it might have represented an opportunity for the circulation of knowledge, techniques and professionals, it embedded itself into the structure of the psychiatric institution without challenging the practices or ideas in for ideas in force

This paper examines the correspondence, manuscripts, and speeches of ex-mental patient activists. I chronicle the activities of the emergent psychiatric survivors movement from its beginnings in the early 1970’s focusing on the work of the Boston based activist, Judi Chamberlin (1944-2010). This paper examines how mental patients in post-war America began to organize in order to have their voices included in the process of their own recovery. I present Chamberlin’s experience as a mental patient as being representative of the “rootlessness” that many post-war women experienced. Chamberlin’s work as an ex-patient activist presented one aspect of the overall struggle on the part of mental patients to claim their place in a wider society. I also pay attention to interdisciplinary scholarly analyses of madness to investigate how discussion of the subject influenced ex-patient activists, as well as whether or not the ex-patients’ narrative reciprocally influenced the scholarly discussion about madness. In the final chapters, I also look at how the successes of this social movement ironically led to the prevalence of today’s diagnostic models of treatment that rely heavily on pharmacological methods and highly regimented evidence-based psychotherapies while still excluding patients’ voices. The voices of mental patients both in the asylum era and today have been excluded from the treatment process.

Die vorliegende Arbeit befasst sich mit dem wissenschaftlichen Werk der DDR Psychiaterin Christa Kohler (1928 – 2004). Fokussiert werden dabei ihre Habilitationsschrift zu sozialpsychiatrischen Problemen bei Neurosen und Psychosen in der zweiten Lebenshälfte sowie ihr selbstständig erarbeitetes Konzept der „Kommunikativen Psychotherapie“. Die Forschungsarbeit Kohlers wird unter Berücksichtigung von themenrelevanter Literatur, Interviews mit Zeitzeugen und Archivmaterialien analysiert und bewertet. Dabei wird auch die Person Kohlers beleuchtet und ihre Arbeit in den wissenschaftshistorischen Kontext eingeordnet.:Inhaltsverzeichnis 1. MOTIVATION FÜR DAS THEMA 4 2. AUFBAU DER ARBEIT 5 3. HISTORISCHER KONTEXT DES THEMAS 6 4. METHODE 8 5. FACHWISSENSCHAFTLICHE AUSGANGSLAGE 10 5.1 Überblick über die Geschichte der Psychotherapie 10 5.2 Psychotherapie in der DDR 15 5.3 Überblick über die Geschichte der Sozialpsychiatrie 20 5.4 Sozialpsychiatrie in der DDR 22 6. PRIMÄRQUELLEN, ARCHIVALIEN, INTERVIEWS 25 7. FORSCHUNGSFRAGEN 26 8. BIOGRAFISCHES ZUR PSYCHIATERIN CHRISTA KOHLER 28 9. PUBLIKATIONEN 33 9.1 Steinmetz M Himmerich H Steinberg H. Christa Kohlers „Kommunikative Psychotherapie“ – ein integratives Psychotherapiekonzept im biografischen, wissenschaftlichen und historischen Kontext in der Zeitschrift „Fortschritte der Neurologie Psychiatrie“ 33 9.2 Steinmetz M Himmerich H Steinberg H. Eine frühe sozialpsychiatrische Schrift in der DDR. Christa Kohlers Habilitation über Neurosen und Psychosen der zweiten Lebenshälfte 34 10. PROBLEMATISIERUNG DES KONTEXTES WISSENSCHAFT IN DER DDR 35 10.1 Zusammenarbeit mit dem Ministerium für Staatssicherheit (MfS) 35 10.2 Einflussnahme der SED auf die Wissenschaft und den ärztlichen Beruf 35 10.2.1 Staatliche Vorgaben sowie Freiräume psychotherapeutischer Forschung in der DDR 39 11. BEDEUTUNG DER ARBEIT UND AUSBLICK 42 11.1 Bedeutung der Arbeit 42 11.2 Ausblick 43 12. ZUSAMMENFASSENDE THESEN 44 13. LITERATUR 49 14. ABBILDUNGSVERZEICHNIS 55 15. TABELLENVERZEICHNIS 56 16. DANKSAGUNG 57 17. EIDESSTATTLICHE ERKLÄRUNG 58 18. BIBLIOGRAPHISCHE BESCHREIBUNG 59

In the early 20th century, there were few therapeutic options for mental illness and asylum numbers were rising. This pessimistic outlook favoured the rise of the eugenics movement. Heredity was assumed to be the principal cause of mental illness. Politicians, scientists and clinicians in North America and Europe called for compulsory sterilisation of the mentally ill. Psychiatric genetic research aimed to prove a Mendelian mode of inheritance as a scientific justification for these measures. Ernst Rüdin’s seminal 1916 epidemiological study on inheritance of dementia praecox featured large, systematically ascertained samples and statistical analyses. Rüdin’s 1922–1925 study on the inheritance of “manic-depressive insanity” was completed in manuscript form, but never published. It failed to prove a pattern of Mendelian inheritance, counter to the tenets of eugenics of which Rüdin was a prominent proponent. It appears he withheld the study from publication, unable to reconcile this contradiction, thus subordinating his carefully derived scientific findings to his ideological preoccupations. Instead, Rüdin continued to promote prevention of assumed hereditary mental illnesses by prohibition of marriage or sterilisation and was influential in the introduction by the National Socialist regime of the 1933 “Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring” (Gesetz zur Verhütung erbkranken Nachwuchses).

Die vorliegende Publikationspromotion setzt sich mit dem forensisch-psychiatrischen Werk und Schaffen des ersten abendländischen Lehrstuhlinhabers für Psychiatrie und Begründers der Leipziger Universitätspsychiatrie Johann Christian August Heinroth (1773-1843) zu Beginn des 19. Jahrhunderts auseinander. Die Schwerpunkte dabei sind dessen eigene Gutachtertätigkeit und sein Konzept der Zurechnungsfähigkeit. Anhand ausgewählter Schriften wurde eine textnahe Lektüre durchgeführt, um Heinroth losgelöst von Kontexten und Kategorien direkt verstehen zu können. Es ließ sich rekonstruieren, dass Heinroth durch philosophisches Denken und ganzheitliche Problemlösungsstrategien nicht nur der in seiner Zeit verbreiteten Exkulpationsneigung und der Instrumentalisierung psychischer Erkrankungen entschieden entgegen tritt, sondern auch, wenngleich er dieselben nicht überwindet, dennoch konstruktive Lösungsansätze für forensisch-psychiatrische Debatten findet und damit eine Bereicherung auch für aktuelle neurowissenschaftliche Diskussionen darstellt. Durch die Tiefendarstellung eines Zeitgenossen wird so ein Beitrag zur Vervollständigung der Geschichte der Forensischen Psychiatrie geleistet.