Hot water thermal energy stores have the potential to improve and extend the performance of many kinds of energy system. Waperature stratification in the store is likely to affect the system's efficiency. A basic but accurate computer model of the hot water store under various inlet flow conditions is a requisite means of assesiing promising applications of hot water storage by system computer simulation techniques. A microprocessor-controlled test facility has been constructed to evaluate the performance of a 3m 3 hot water store under a wide range of inlet flow conditions, using a temperature step input approach. Three types of inlet/outlet ports have been examined: horizontal, vertical and distributors. The results show that two distinct regions evolve within the store: a fully-mixed region adjacent to the inlet port and a region of smooth 'plug-flow' in the remaining volume of the store. The performance of the store is shown to be defined by the initial depth of the fully-mixed region which in turn is seen to be closely related to the buoyancy and momentum fluxes of the inlet flow. The behAviour of the store and the evident correlations have enabled a one-dimensional computer model of the store to be developed, taking into account the turbulent mixing, vertical heat conduction and heat losses to the surrounding areas. The model has been successfully validated against the results from the step input experiments. The model has been integrated into a computer simulated central heating system which incorporates a hot water store. Predictions have been made, using the simulation, of the energy savings which may be achieved with the use of storage in comparison to a conventional system, and an assessment has been made of the economic viability of the application.

Solar thermal energy harvesting is a promising solution to offset the electricity demands of a growing population. The use of the technology is however still limited and this can most likely be attributed to the capital cost and also the intermittent nature of solar energy which requires incorporation of a storage system. To make the technology more attractive and effective, cheap means of harvesting solar energy and the development of efficient and inexpensive thermal energy storage devices will improve the performance of solar energy systems and the widespread use of solar energy. Heat storage in a packed-bed rock with air as the working fluid presents an attractive and simple solution for storing solar thermal energy and it is recommended for solar air heaters. A packed-bed rock storage system consists of rocks of good heat capacity packed in a storage tank. The working fluid (air) flows through the bed to transfer its energy. The major concern of the design for a packed-bed rock thermal storage system is to maximize the heat transfer and minimise the pressure drop across the storage tank and hence the pumping power. The time duration the stored energy can be preserved and the air flow wall effect through the bed are the common complications encountered in this system. This study presents an experimental and analytical analysis of a vacuum storage tank with the use of expanded perlite for high temperature thermal energy storage in a packed-bed of rocks. Dolerite rocks are used as the storage medium due to their high heat capacity and as they are locally available. To minimise the pressure drop across the tank, moderate rock sizes are used. The tank contains baffles, allowing an even spread of air to rock contact through the entire tank, therefore improving heat transfer. There is a good correlation between the predicted and the actual results (4 percent) which implies that the baffles incorporated inside the vacuum tank forces the air through the entire tank, thereby resulting in an even lateral temperature distribution across the tank. The investigation of heat loss showed that a vacuum with expanded perlite is a viable solution to high temperature heat storage for an extended period. The research also focuses on the investigation of a proposed low cost parabolic trough solar collector for an air heating system as shown in Figure (1.3). The use of a standard solar geyser evacuated tube (@R130 each) has cost benefits over the industry standard solar tubes normally used in concentrating solar power systems. A mathematical was developed to predict the thermal performance of proposed PTC and it was found that the measured results compared well with the predictions. The solar energy conversion efficiency of this collector is up to 70 percent. This research could impact positively on remote rural communities by providing a source of clean energy, especially for off-grid applications for schools, clinics and communication equipment. It could lead to a significant improvement in the cost performance, ease of installation and technical performance of storage systems for solar heating applications.

M.Ing. / The research in this thesis focuses on the theoretical thermal modelling and design of a Latent Heat Storage system (LHS) for an absorption refrigeration machine. A shell-and-tube latent heat storage exchanger retaining any excess solar thermal energy is selected. Here, solar thermal energy supplied by a collector is transferred to and stored by the LHS. During low insolation, stored thermal energy is transferred by a Heat Transfer Fluid (HTF) into the generator, a component of an Ammonia Absorption Refrigerator (AAAR), to ensure efficiency of the cooling cycle. The shell-and-tube LHS contains Phase Change Material (PCM) which fills space outside the tube heat exchangers. The HTF flowing through the tubes exchanges thermal energy with the PCM. The selection of a suitable PCM for a LHS is based on several factors. A primary criterion for an efficient, reliable storage unit is the correct melting point of the PCM at a desired operating temperature of the heating application. An analytical model describing both the freezing process in the PCM and increased HTF temperature in the tube heat exchangers is investigated. The model is developed using energy balance equations. It is solved in terms of dimensionless parameters. The thermal resistance of the tube heat exchangers is considered for this model. From the result of the analytical model, the design approach to size the LHS is provided and the different steps are given in order to determine the volume, mass, number of tube heat exchangers, inner and outer radius of the tube heat exchangers and other parameters of the LHS. The dimensions of LHS are given as a function of a storage period, PCM properties, HTF properties, inner and outer radius of the tube heat exchangers, material of construction of the tube heat exchangers and the nature of load on the heating process. Simulations from the analytical model developed are provided for the output thermal parameters of the storage system. These thermal parameters of the shell-and-tube latent exchanger are given in terms of the HTF outlet temperature, the front solidification of the PCM and the heat transfer rate during the solidification process of the PCM. A case study to demonstrate the application of the design approach with respect to the size shell-and-tube latent heat exchanger is provided.The integration of the tube heat exchangers thermal conductivity in the modelling of the LHS resulted in an increase of 2% in mass of the storage material compared to an analytical model neglecting the thermal conductivity of the tube heat exchangers. The results of the model developed compared well with the results obtained from other analytical models at similar operating conditions.

This pilot study aims to evaluate the thermal performance of different types of solar thermal collectors and their long-term economic benefits for Obbola school, located within the Umeå municipality. The goal of this project is to investigate how much thermal and electrical energy can be generated annually and even during summertime by using only solar collectors for heating purposes of an outdoor pool at Obbola school. The solar thermal collectors that are selected for this project are Solar Keymark-certified flat plate, evacuated tube, and photovoltaic hybrid solar collectors. This study will include designing and simulation roof-integrated and ground-based collectors in Polysun software and determine their thermal performance at European Standards of 45° and collectors facing true south. The simulations in Polysun were conducted on the main site roof area of 65 m2 and a steep grass area of 66 m2 behind the main roof.This pilot study shows that only during the summertime, between the 1st of May and the 31st of August, flat and evacuated tube solar collectors can generate between 4.5 - 5.1% of the school's annual average thermal energy needs. The total average generated thermal energy by these collectors during a year is about 20800 kWh. A hybrid solar collector's thermal energy generated during the summertime covers only 0.6% of 400215 kWh, the annual average thermal energy the school needs. At the same time, the generated electricity will cover only 1.2% of the average electricity the Obbola school needs, which is 539600 kWh.Some economic analyses were conducted to evaluate the long-term economic benefits of installing solar thermal collectors for Umeå municipality, including payback period, life cycle profit, annuity, and life cycle costs. The payback period results show that these collectors have between 9 to 20 years of returning their initial investment. This economic analysis was based on the collector's service life between 25 to 40 years, depending on the brands and manufacturers. These collectors' average life cycle profit revenue is between 178816 SEK and 294415 SEK after 25 and 40 years, respectively. This profit margin makes it very attractive for Umeå municipality, and this model can be used for further implementation at other schools within the municipality. The annual annuity revenue from these collectors is 10269 SEK to 12737 SEK after 25 and 40 years of service, respectively. The results from the return-on-investment show that the installation will give about a percentage profit of 2.8% to 3.5% between 25 and 40 years, respectively. These collectors' average life cycle costs over 25 and 40 years are 358094 SEK and 677231 SEK, respectively. According to the economic analyses, the results show that this pilot study will be a very profitable investment for the Umeå municipality.

<p>  </p> <p>Thermal energy storage (TES) is used to reduce the operating costs of heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems by shifting loads away from on-peak periods, to reduce the maximum heating or cooling capacity needed from the HVAC system, and to store excess energy generated by on-site solar power. The most commonly-used form of TES is ice storage with air conditioning (A/C) systems in commercial buildings. There has been extensive research into many other forms of TES for use with HVAC systems, both in commercial and residential buildings. However, this research is often limited to use with either heating or cooling systems.</p> <p>Year-round, high-density storage for both heating and cooling would yield significantly larger cost savings than existing TES systems, particularly for residential buildings, where heating loads are often larger than cooling loads. This dissertation examines the feasibility of using metal hydrides for year-round storage, as well as analyzing the potential of variable-temperature energy storage for optimizing system performance beyond allowing for year-round use.</p> <p>Metal hydrides are metals that exothermically absorb and endothermically desorb hydrogen. Since the temperature this reaction occurs at depends on the hydrogen pressure, hydrides can be used for energy storage at varying temperatures. System architecture for using metal hydrides with an HVAC system is developed. A thermodynamic model which combines a dynamic model of the hydride reactors with a static model of the HVAC system is used to calculate operating costs, compared to a conventional HVAC system, for different utility rates and locations. The payback period of the system is unacceptably high, due to the high initial cost of metal hydrides and the operating costs of compressing hydrogen to move it between hydride reactors.</p> <p>In addition to the metal hydride system model, a generalized model of a variable-temperature TES system is used to determine the potential cost savings from dynamically altering the storage temperature to achieve optimal cost savings. Dynamic tuning does result in cost savings but is most effective for storage tank sizes significantly smaller than the optimal tank size. An alternate system design where the storage tank is charged with the outlet flow from the house achieves larger cost savings even for the optimally-sized tanks. Payback periods calculated for optimal sizing show that year-round storage has a lower payback period than separate cold and heat storage if the year-round storage system is not more expensive than two separate storage tanks. </p>

<h1>Abstract</h1><p>The future of ethanol is depending on good solutions for the production. ENA energy power plant produces electrical power and district heating by heating biofuel. By building an integrated bioenergy plant surplus steam could be used to produce ethanol as fuel to vehicle.</p><p>This would mean that ethanol is produced renewable energy and the energy for the process derives from the surplus of power.  ENA energy, MDH (the University of Mälardalen) and the energy authority has initiated a research project were different bioenergy combinations integrate with existing power plant.  As a part of the project which size an integrated factory should be to gain the best efficiency for the plant was investigated. Consideration will be taken to the cost of the production in order to be competitive to the price of imported ethanol.</p><p> </p><p> </p><p>Etanolens framtid vilar på bra lösningar för framställning.  I ENA energi kraftverk i Enköping produceras el och fjärrvärme genom eldning av biobränsle.  Genom att bygga ett integrerat bioenergikraftverk där skulle man kunna använda överskottsånga till att framställa etanol som fordonsbränsle. Detta skulle innebära att etanolen framställs med ett förnybart bränsle och energin till framställningen kommer från ett överskott på värme.   ENA energi, MDH och energimyndigheten har initierat ett forskningsprojekt där en bioenergiintegrering skall undersökas.  Som del i detta skall här undersökas vilken storlek en integrerad etanolfabrik skall ha för att nå högsta totala verkningsgrad för verket samt om framställningspriset kan konkurrera med importerad etanol.</p><p> </p>

Master of Science / Department of Mechanical Engineering / Donald Fenton / The need to store and access electronic information is growing on a daily basis as more and more people conduct business and personal affairs through email and the internet. To meet these demands, high energy density data centers have sprung up across the United States and around world. To ensure that vital data centers run constantly, proper cooling must be maintained to prevent overheating and possible server damage from occurring. Emergency cooling systems for such systems typically utilize traditional batteries, backup generator, or a combination thereof. The electrical backup provides enough power to support cooling for essential components within the data centers. While this method has shown to be reliable and effective, there are several other methods that provide reliable emergency cooling at a fraction of the cost. This paper address the lack of information regarding the initial, operation, and maintenance costs of using Thermal Energy Storage (TES) tanks for emergency cooling. From research and various field examples, five emergency cooling system layouts were designed for various peak cooling loads. Looking at the different cooling loads, components, and system operations an economic evaluation of the system over a 20 year period was conducted. The economic analysis included the initial and maintenance costs of each system. In an effort to better understand power consumption of such systems and to help designer’s better estimate the long term costs of TES tanks systems, five layouts were simulated through a program called TRNSYS developed for thermal systems. To compare against current systems in place, a benefit to cost ratio was done to analyze TES versus a comparable UPS. The five simulated systems were one parallel pressurized tank, one parallel and one series atmospheric tank, one parallel low temperature chilled water, and one series ice storage tank. From the analysis, the ice storage and pressurized systems were the most cost effective for 1 MW peak cooling loads. For 5 MW peak cooling loads the ice storage and chilled water systems were the most cost effective. For 15 MW peak loads the chilled water atmospheric TES tanks were the most cost effective. From the simulations we concluded that the pressurized and atmospheric systems consumed the least amount of power over a 24 hour period during a discharge and recharge cycle of the TES tank. From the TRNSYS simulations, the ice storage system consumed 22 – 25% more energy than a comparable chilled water system, while the low temperature storage system consumed 6 – 8% more energy than the chilled water system. From the benefit-cost-ratio analysis, it was observed that all systems were more cost effective than a traditional battery UPS system of comparable size. For the smaller systems at 1 MW the benefit-cost-ratio ranged between 0.25 to 0.55, while for larger systems (15 MW) the ratio was between 1.0 to 3.5 making TES tanks a feasible option for providing emergency cooling for large and small systems.

Thermal energy storage (TES) systems play a crucial part in the success of concentrated solar power as a reliable thermal energy source. The economics and operational effectiveness of TES systems are the subjects of continuous research for improvement, in order to lower the localized cost of energy (LCOE). This study investigates the use of spherical tanks and their role in sensible heat storage in liquids. In the two tank system, typical cylindrical tanks were replaced by spherical tanks of the same volume and subjected to heat loss, stress analysis, and complete tank cost evaluation. The comparison revealed that replacing cylindrical tanks by spherical tanks in two tank molten salt storage systems could result in a 30% reduction in heat loss from the wall, with a comparable reduction in total cost. For a one tank system (or thermocline system), a parametric computational fluid dynamic (CFD) study was performed in order to obtain fluid flow parameters that govern the formation and maintenance of a thermocline in a spherical tank. The parametric study involved the following dimensionless numbers: Re (500-7500), Ar (0.5-10), Fr (0.5-3), and Ri (1-100). The results showed that within the examined range of flow characteristics, the inlet Fr number is the most influential parameter in spherical tank thermocline formation and maintenance, and the largest tank thermal efficiency in a spherical tank is achieved at Fr = 0.5. Experimental results were obtained to validate the CFD model used in the parametric study. For the flow parameters within the current model, the use of an eddy viscosity turbulence model with variable turbulence intensity delivered the best agreement with experimental results. Overall, the experimental study using a spherical one tank setup validated the results of the CFD model with acceptable accuracy.

Esse trabalho apresenta a análise energética e termo econômico comparativo para sistemas de cogeração, utilizando o gás natural, projetados para uma indústria de laticínios na Colômbia. Esses sistemas devem produzir as seguintes utilidades para os processos da planta: vapor, água gelada, ar comprimido, eletricidade, água de torre de resfriamento e água potável. Estas comparações desenvolvem-se para dois cenários: no primeiro os sistemas geram as utilidades somete para a planta e no segundo os sistemas exportam também os excedentes de eletricidade. Os sistemas de cogeração são: um ciclo de vapor com turbina a vapor de condensação e extração de vapor, um sistema baseado em uma turbina num motor a gás. Na análise termo econômica, utilizam-se os métodos de alocação de custos da igualdade e da extração para determinar os custos de produção das utilidades para cada processo na planta, na condição operacional original da planta, e para cada um dos cenários operacionais considerados das plantas de cogeração com três preços do gás natural: 2,5, 3,5 e 4,5 US$/MMBtu. Esta comparação indica a viabilidade dos sistemas de cogeração para cada cenário de produção. Os resultados demonstram que somente o sistema baseado na turbina a gás com o gás a 2,5 US$/MMBtu é economicamente viável. Recomenda-se que este sistema seja considerado na implementação da cogeração na indústria colombiana de laticínios. Com o gás ao preço atual de 4,5 US$/MMBtu, nenhum dos sistemas é economicamente viável. A sua atratividade poderia ser derivada do seu valor estratégico e da redução do impacto ambiental provocado pela operação da planta de utilidade. Se 90% do setor de laticínios implementasse a cogeração, seria possível liberar 5,81 MW para serem utilizados em outros tipos de usos finais no país. Com a venda de excedentes de eletricidade o benefício seria maior ainda. / This work presents the comparative energy and thermo economic analysis of cogeneration system, utilizing natural gas, designed for a dairy industry in Colombia. These systems must produce the following utilities for the processes of the plant: steam, chilled water, compressed air, electricity, cooling tower water and potable water. These comparisons are developed for two scenarios: in the first one the systems generate the utilities only for the plant and in the second one the systems also export electricity. The cogeneration systems are a steam cycle with extraction/ condensation steam turbine, a gas turbine based system and engine based system. In the thermo economic analysis the equality and extraction cost partition methods are utilized in order to determine the production cost of the utilities for each process in the plant, in the original operating condition of the plant, and each of the considered operating scenarios of the cogeneration plants with gas at 2,5, 3,5 and 4,5 US$/MMBtu. This comparison indicates the feasibility of the cogeneration systems for each production scenario. The results show that only the gas turbine based system with gas at 2,5 US$/MMBtu is economically feasible. Consideration of this system for the use cogeneration in the Colombian dairy industry is recommended. With the present price of 4,5 US$/MMBtu for natural gas, none of the systems is economically feasible. Its attractiveness could derive from its strategic value and from reduction of the environmental impact caused by the utilities plant operation. With 90% of the dairy industry implementing cogeneration, it would be possible to liberate 5,81 MW for utilization in the other final uses in the country. With the sale of the electricity surplus, the benefit would be even greater.

The results of a combined theoretical and experimental study of the kinetics of a hot-liquid energy-storage tank are presented. A physical model is developed which accurately describes the thermal stratification behavior in a storage tank. The governing differential equations are developed for the physical model. A numerical solution to the system of equations is presented. Some existing models were examined and the predicted results of each are discussed. The concepts developed can be used to predict the thermal stratification behavior in a storage tank under most conceivable operating conditions. These conditions include flow configurations at the top and the bottom of the tank which both have inversionary tendencies. Inversionary behavior could conceivably occur in both the top and the bottom regions of the tank during a combined storage and usage mode which might occur at non-peak storage hours. Although the work was done primarily for the utilization of solar energy, the results are not limited to such application. The results are more significant as a contribution to applied fluid dynamics.