Thesis (MA)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: As South Africa is a culturally and linguistically diverse country, there is a great need for an accurate evaluation instrument that can identify children with specific language impairment (SLI) early, regardless of their language group. The language tests that are available in South Africa are mostly available in only English or Afrikaans (see Penn 1998). In the literature four repetition tasks have been identified as potential markers of SLI: nonword repetition (Coady and Evans 2008:11), sentence repetition and digit repetition (Ziethe, Eysholdt and Doellinger 2013:1) as well as real word repetition (Dispaldro, Benelli, Marcolini and Stella 2009:941). The purpose of this study was to compare the sensitivity of these four potential markers with each other in an attempt to compile an accurate measuring instrument of SLI for Afrikaans and English. The study also aimed to collect baseline data with isiXhosa-speaking children. The participants consisted of five groups of five-year-olds: The first three groups consisted of 20 typical developing (TD) Afrikaans-, 20 TD English-, and 20 TD isiXhosa-speaking children. The fourth and fifth group consisted of five Afrikaans-speaking and five English-speaking children with SLI. All four repetition tasks were performed with both Afrikaans- and both English-speaking groups; only digit repetition and nonword repetition were performed with the isiXhosa-speaking group. Refined and graded items were (i) selected from longer lists of items that were used in the pilot study, and (ii) based on the results of the pilot study, were recorded on a CD in a recording studio. This recording served as method of presentation of the items to each participant individually during the main study. There were no statistically significant differences between the performance of the TD Afrikaans- and the TD English-speaking groups. The TD isiXhosa-speaking group, however, performed significantly better on the nonword repetition task but worse on the digit repetition task than the other two TD groups. Both groups with SLI performed poorly, and significantly poorer than their corresponding TD group, in all four of the repetition tasks. For the Afrikaans-speaking children, sentence repetition followed by real word repetition distinguished best between participants with and without SLI. Sentence repetition, followed by nonword repetition, was shown to be most sensitive in distinguishing TD children from children with SLI in the English group. The percentage sounds/words correctly repeated per word/sentence, for both the nonword repetition task and the real word repetition task, was more accurate than the raw scores for the Afrikaans- and English-speaking groups. Some items did prove to be more sensitive for the difference between the performance of the TD and the SLI groups in Afrikaans and English. These more sensitive items may be appropriate for inclusion in a screening tool for SLI for use with five-year-olds. In conclusion, the results of this study confirm all four repetition tasks to be markers of SLI. Sentence repetition and nonword repetition were more sensitive markers of SLI in English-speaking five-year-olds, with sentence repetition and real word repetition being the more sensitive markers of SLI in Afrikaans-speaking five-year-olds. The isiXhosa-speaking group performed similarly to the Afrikaans- and English-speaking groups in the nonword repetition- and digit repetition tasks. Based on these results, recommendations are made regarding the content and presentation mode of a screening test comprising repetition tasks for the identification of possible SLI in Afrikaans- and English-speaking children. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Aangesien Suid-Afrika ‘n kultureel en linguisties diverse land is, is daar ‘n groot behoefte aan ‘n metingsinstrument wat kinders met spesifieke taalgestremdheid (STG) , uit alle taalgroepe, vroegtydig en akkuraat kan identifiseer. Die taaltoetse wat wel in Suid-Afrika gebruik kan word, is bykans slegs in Afrikaans of Engels beskikbaar (kyk Penn 1998). In die literatuur is daar vier herhalingstake geïdentifiseer wat potensiële merkers van STG kan wees: onsinwoordherhaling (Coady en Evans 2008:11), sinsherhaling en getalherhaling (Ziethe, Eysholdt en Doellinger 2013:1) asook regtewoordherhaling (Dispaldro, Benelli, Marcolini en Stella 2009:941). Die doel van hierdie studie was om die sensitiwiteit van hierdie vier potensiële merkers met mekaar te vergelyk in ‘n poging om ‘n akkurate metingsinstrument van STG vir Afrikaans en Engels op te stel. Basislyndata oor herhaling deur isiXhosasprekende kinders is ook in hierdie studie ingesamel. Die deelnemers het uit vyf groepe vyfjariges bestaan. Die eerste drie groepe was 20 tipies ontwikkelende (TO) Afrikaans-, 20 TO Engels-, en 20 TO isiXhosasprekendes. Die vierde en vyfde groep het uit vyf Afrikaanssprekende- en vyf Engelsprekende kinders met STG bestaan. Al vier herhalingstake is met die twee Afrikaans- en die twee Engelssprekende groepe uitgevoer; slegs getalherhaling en onsinwoordherhaling is met die isiXhosasprekende groep uitgevoer. Verfynde en gegradeerde items geselekteer (i) uit die langer itemlyste gebruik in die loodsstudie en (ii) op grond van die loosstudieresultate, is op CD opgeneem in ‘n klankateljee, en dié opname is gebruik as die metode van aanbieding van die items aan elke deelnemer individueel tydens die hoofstudie. Daar is geen statisties beduidende verskil tussen die prestasie van die TO Afrikaans- en TO Engelssprekende-groepe gevind nie. Die TO isiXhosa-sprekende groep het egter beter as hierdie twee groepe gepresteer in onsinwoordherhaling maar swakker in getalherhaling. Die twee STG-groepe het beide swak, en beduidend swakker as hul ooreenstemmende TO-groep, op alle herhalingstake gevaar. Vir Afrikaanssprekendes het sinsherhaling, gevolg deur regtewoordherhaling, die beste tussen die deelnemers met en sonder STG onderskei, terwyl die mees sensitiewe take vir die Engelssprekende deelnemers sinsherhaling gevolg deur onsinwoordherhaling was. Persentasie klanke/woorde korrek herhaal per woord/sin was in die geval van onsinwoordherhalings- en regtewoordherhalingstake vir beide Afrikaans en Engels meer akkuraat as wat roupunttellings was. Sommige items in elk van die herhalingstake was beide vir Engels en Afrikaans meer sensitief vir die verskil tussen die prestasies van die TO- en STG-groepe. Hierdie meer sensitiewe items mag toepaslik wees vir insluiting in ʼn siftingstoets vir STG vir gebruik met vyfjariges. Opsommend: Die resulate bevestig al vier herhalingstake as merkers van STG. Sinsherhaling en onsinwoordherhaling is meer sensitiewe merkers van STG vir Engelssprekende vyfjariges, met sinsherhaling en regtewoordherhaling wat meer sensitiewe merkers van STG vir Afrikaanssprekende vyfjariges is. Die isiXhosasprekende groep het soortgelyk aan die Afrikaans- en Engelssprekende groepe ten opsigte van onsinwoordherhaling en getalherhaling presteer. Op grond van die resultate word aanbevelings gemaak vir die inhoud en aanbeidingswyse van ‘n siftingstoets bestaande uit herhalingstake vir die identifisering van moontlike STG in Afrikaans- en Engelssprekende kinders.

Thesis (MPhil)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This study refers to the use of two languages in education at a satellite campus of the University of Namibia situated in the far north of the country in the town of Ongwediva. The dominant community language in this region is Oshiwambo. The official language of the country, and of the particular university campus, is English. As the majority of students come from this region, the dominant first language on this campus among staff and students is Oshiwambo. This research gives a description of multilingualism prevalent among individuals and in the community on this particular campus; it also explains some of the characterising features of a plurilingual community of practice in this higher education (HE) institution. This thesis gives a description of communicative practices in a multilingual classroom at the particular HE institution in this rural town. It aims to document how practices of code-switching between Oshiwambo and English are used in facilitating (or hindering) learning as this becomes manifest in classroom discourse. Also, it aims to explain the kind of mobility that is enabled and sometimes also enforced by linguistic diversity within a community such as the one investigated here on the Hifikepunye Pohamba campus in Ongwediva. Findings of this study provide evidence that most lecturers and students, even many of foreign origin, alternate between two languages, namely between Oshiwambo and English. Although the practice of code switching is neither unusual nor discouraged, the data indicates that is occurs much less in formal classroom discourse than in informal discourse and in smaller group discussions. Observed and recorded presentations by the lecturer are done in English and responses by students in the lecture are given largely in English. Code switching from English to Oshiwambo happens when students need to articulate themselves more precisely than their English proficiency allows. Such code switching also serves other purposes such as including and excluding other conversants, mediating new knowledge, changing tone, etc. L1 speakers of languages other than Oshiwambo do at times experience social isolation, and exclusion in collaborative learning. Nevertheless, many informally acquire proficiency in Oshiwambo and so are accommodated into the educational discourse. The mobility of the local Namibian population as well as that of people from neighbouring countries, enhances the multilingualism which has to be accommodated in lectures and in out-of-classroom interaction. In spite of multilingual repertoires, the participants in the study all ascribe to a model of “double monolingualism” in that they regard their linguistic repertoires not as intersecting language systems, but as separate systems with distinct functions in different contexts. Their linguistic practices, however, display much more unconscious integration of the variety of languages they know. The study finds that it is vital for educators to take cognisance of these findings in order to make better use of the linguistic resources of the communities represented among lecturers and students. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie studie gee aandag aan die gebruik van twee tale in onderrig by ʼn satellietkampus van die Universiteit van Namibië, wat in die verre noorde van die land geleë is, in die dorp Ongwediva. Die dominante streektaal wat hierdie gemeenskap gebruik, is Oshiwambo. Die amptelike taal van die land, en van die betrokke universiteitskampus, is Engels. Aangesien die meerderheid van die studente uit die streek kom, is die mees gebruikte eerstetaal onder personeel en studente op hierdie kampus, Oshiwambo. Hierdie tesis beskryf die veeltaligheid wat aangetref word onder individue en binne die gemeenskap van hierdie hoër onderwys inrigting; dit gee ook ʼn uiteensetting van enkele karakteriserende eienskappe van ʼn meertalige gemeenskap wat gekonstitueer word op grond van gemeenskaplike praktyke aan hierdie hoër onderwys inrigting. Die tesis gee ʼn beskrywing van kommunikatiewe gebruike in ʼn veeltalige klaskamer by die betrokke inrigting vir hoër onderwys in die plattelandse dorp. Dit beoog die dokumentering van kodewisselingspraktyke tussen Oshiwambo en Engels soos dit in klaskamerdiskoerse voorkom in die fasilitering (of belemmering) van leer. Dit beoog verder om die soort mobiliteit te verduidelik wat moontlik gemaak word, en soms ook afgedwing word deur veeltaligheid binne ʼn gemeenskap soos die een wat hier aan die Hifikepunye Pohamba kampus in Ongwediva ondersoek word. Die bevindinge van die ondersoek wys daarop dat die meeste dosente en studente, selfs baie wat van vreemde herkoms is, afwisselend twee tale, nl. Oshiwambo en Engels, gebruik. Alhoewel die praktyk van kodewisseling nie ongewoon is nie, en ook nie ontmoedig word nie, toon die data dat dit minder dikwels in die formele klaskamerdiskoers voorkom as in informele diskoerse en in kleiner groepbesprekings. Klasaanbiedinge van die dosent wat waargeneem en opgeneem is, sowel as terugvoer van die studente in die lesing is grootliks in Engels gedoen. Kodewisseling van Engels na Oshiwambo vind plaas as studente voel dat hulle iets meer presies wil verwoord as wat hulle Engels-taalvaardigheid toelaat. Sodanige kodewisseling het ook ander funksies, soos die insluiting of uitsluiting van ander gespreksgenote, die bemiddeling van nuwe kennis, ʼn verandering in toon, en dergelike. Eerstetaalsprekers van ander tale as Oshiwambo ervaar wel van tyd tot tyd dat hulle geïsoleer word, en dat hulle by gesamentlike leer-praktyke uitgesluit word. Nogtans verwerf baie van die nie-Oshiwambosprekendes informeel kennis van Oshiwambo sodat hulle dan wel in die opvoedkundige diskoers geakkommodeer word. Die mobiliteit van die plaaslike Namibiese bevolking sowel as dié van mense uit buurlande, lei tot groter voorkoms van veeltaligheid wat in lesings en in die buite-klaskamer interaksie geakkommodeer moet word. Ten spyte van talige repertoires wat meer tale as net twee insluit, werk die deelnemers aan hierdie studie deurgaans met ʼn model waarna verwys word as “dubbele eentaligheid” (“double monolingualism”), wat inhou dat hulle hul kennis van verskeie tale nie verstaan as oorvleuelende, gemeenskaplik funksionerende stelsels nie, maar as aparte stelsels met verskillende funksies in verskillende kontekste. Hulle talige gebruike vertoon egter heelwat meer onbewuste integrasie van die verskeidenheid tale wat hulle ken. Die studie vind dit noodsaaklik dat opvoedkundiges kennis neem van hierdie bevindinge ten einde beter gebruik te maak van die taalbronne van die onderskeie gemeenskappe wat deur die dosente en studente verteenwoordig word.

Thesis (MA)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This study provides a description of Afrikaans adverbs within the framework of proposals set out by Cinque (1999). Previous analyses of adverbs in Afrikaans have generally been done within a non-generative framework (e.g. Oosthuizen 1964, Theron 1964). The aim of the study is to determine whether Cinque’s functional head-based theory provides an adequate framework for the analysis of adverbs in Afrikaans. The main focus is therefore on the functional aspect of adverbs. However, alternative theoretical frameworks, namely those of Ernst (2002), Tenny (2000), and Holmer (2012), are also briefly described. The study is presented with the broad theoretical framework of Minimalist Syntax. Cinque’s research procedure is outlined, starting with his analysis of adverbs in Romance languages and then as it is extended cross-linguistically. Here the focus is especially on the conclusions that Cinque draws with regard to the relative order of adverb types, and that of clausal functional heads. Adverbs in Afrikaans are subsequently analysed in the light of Cinque’s findings. The main question addressed in this study, namely whether Cinque’s hierarchies of adverb and funcional category orders can be successfully applied to Afrikaans, is answered in the affirmative. Despite limitations in the diagnostic procedure, Afrikaans adverb and functional head orders seem to comply with Cinque’s proposed hierarchies. That the facts of Afrikaans adverbs seem to comply with Cinque’s functional theory regarding adverbs, provides support for his proposed framework and also provides further credence to his claims about a universal, cross-linguistic hierarchy of adverb-functional head order. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie studie bied ’n beskrywig van Afrikaanse bywoorde binne die raamwerk van voorstelle van Cinque (1999). Vorige analises van Afrikaanse bywoorde is grotendeels binne ’n nie-generatiewe raamwerk gedoen (bv. Oosthuizen 1964, Theron 1964). Die doel van die studie is om vas te stel of Cinque se funksionele hoof-gebaseerde teorie ’n toereikende raamwerk bied vir die analise van Afrikaanse bywoorde. Die klem val dus op die funksionele aspek van bywoorde. Alternatiewe teoretiese raamwerke, naamlik die van Ernst (2002), Tenny (2000) en Holmer (2012) word egter ook kortliks beskryf. Die studie word aangebied binne die breë teoretiese raamwerk van Minimalistiese Sintaksis. Cinque se navorsingsprosedure, beginnende met sy analise van bywoorde in Romaanse tale, en daarna soos uitgebrei na tale van ander families, word beskryf. Hierin is die fokus veral op die gevolgtrekkings waartoe Cinque kom rakende die relatiewe volgorde van bywoord-tipes en van funksionele hoofde in sinsverband. Afrikaanse bywoorde word dan in die lig van Cinque se bevindinge geanaliseer. Die hoofvraag wat in die studie aangespreek word, naamlik of Cinque se hierargieë van bywoord- en funksionele hoof-volgordes suksesvol toegepas kan word in Afrikaans, word positief beantwoord. Ondanks beperkings in die toetsingsprosedure, blyk dit dat die volgorde van bywoorde en funksionele hoofde in Afrikaans wel met Cinque se voorgestelde hierargieë ooreenstem. Die bevinding dat die feite van Afrikaans klop met die bewerings van Cinque se funksionele teorie van bywoorde, bied ondersteuning vir die oënskynlike toereikendheid van sy voorgestelde raamwerk, en verskaf verdere geloofwaardig-heid aan sy voorstel van ’n universele hiërargie van bywoord-funksionele hoof- volgorde, oor verskillende tale heen.

Thesis (MPhil)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The goal of this study was to determine and compare the functions of the pragmatic markers (PMs) okay, anyway and shame as they occur in two spoken components of the International Corpus of English (ICE), namely ICE-SA (South African English) and ICE-EA (East African English). Using the commercially available Concordance program WordSmith Tools 4.0, all instances of okay, anyway and shame were identified in each corpus and all non-PM instances were then excluded. The remaining instances of okay, anyway and shame were subsequently hand coded to determine the primary functions that these elements exhibit. The classification of the various functions was done according to Fraser’s (1996, 1999, 2006) framework for identification of PMs. Despite the different size and state of completion of the two corpora, it was found that the functions of the two PMs okay and anyway were similar in South African English and East African English. The findings of the corpus investigation included identifying the functions of okay as both a conversational management marker and a basic marker, as well as its role in turn taking. Anyway was found to function as an interjection, a mitigation marker, a conversational management marker and a discourse marker. Shame was found to be a uniquely South African English PM, and to function both as an interjection and as a solidarity marker. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die doel van hierdie studie was om vas te stel watter funksies verrig word deur die pragmatiese merkers (PM's) okay, anyway en shame, soos wat hulle gebruik word in twee gesproke komponente van die Internasionale Korpus van Engels (IKE), naamlik IKE-SA (Suid-Afrikaanse Engels) en IKE-OA (Oos-Afrika Engels). Met behulp van die kommersieel-beskikbare Concordance-program Wordsmith Tools 4.0, is alle gevalle van okay, anyway en shame binne die onderskeie korpusse geïdentifiseer, waarna alle nie-PM gevalle uitgesluit is. Die oorblywende gevalle van okay, anyway en shame is daarna met die hand gekodeer ten einde die primêre funksies van hierdie elemente vas te stel. Die funksies is geklassifiseer volgens Fraser (1996, 1999, 2006) se raamwerk vir die identifikasie van PM's. Ten spyte van verskille in die grootte en vlak van voltooidheid van die twee korpora, is vasgestel dat die PM's okay en anyway soortgelyke funksies verrig in beide Suid-Afrikaanse Engels en Oos-Afrika Engels. Uit die korpus-analise het dit verder geblyk dat okay nie net 'n rol speel in beurtneming nie, maar ook funksioneer as 'n gespreksbestuur-merker en basiese merker. Anyway blyk op sy beurt te funksioneeer as 'n tussenwerpsel, versagting-merker, gespreksbestuurmerker en diskoersmerker. Laastens is gevind dat shame as PM uniek is aan Suid- Afrikaanse Engels en dat dit funksioneer as beide 'n tussenwerpsel en solidariteitsmerker.

Thesis (MPhil)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This study examined the effect of language typically used on social network sites such as Facebook (referred to here as “Facebook-speak”) on the written academic work of a selected group of high school learners. The general aims of the study were to determine the prevalence of access to Facebook and thus of exposure to Facebook-speak amongst high school learners, and to establish whether any evidence of Facebook-speak features are identified in the written academic work of these learners. Eighty-eight learners from an English-Afrikaans dual medium school in a middle class region in the Western Cape participated in the study. The participants included 44 Afrikaans medium learners and 44 English medium learners of which 51 were in grade 8 and 37 were in grade 9. Questionnaires were completed by the learner participants to determine frequency and volume of Facebook use and self-reported recognition of features of Facebook-speak. Learners also completed a written exercise attached to the questionnaires for the purposes of discovering what counts as Facebook-speak features. The specific features the study anticipated were (deliberate) spelling errors, unconventional punctuation features, over-punctuation, the exclusion of functional words, the excessive use of abbreviations and acronyms and the incorporation of emoticons in written academic work. Additional features identified were the nonconventional use of tenses and sentence structure. The study hypothesised that high exposure to Facebook-speak and limited exposure to formal academic writing have an effect on the academic work of the learners. I considered a claim that the effects of Facebook-speak would be traceable in the schoolwork of the learners. The study therefore compared the actual academic marks the learner participants achieved in one semester for two of their subjects, namely their First Additional Language and History, and related these marks to questionnaire data. I assumed that in the language subject there would be more attention to aspects of grammar and writing, so that the effects of Facebook-speak were more likely to be seen in their History – and also reflected in their marks, i.e. I assumed weak writing skills would be more evident in History than in a language subject, and that weaker writing correlates with poorer marks. Five teacher participants from the same school also completed questionnaires regarding the visible features of Facebook-speak in the learners written work. They commented on new digital literacies and their impact on learners written academic work in an open-ended question put to them in the questionnaire. The results of the study indicate that learner-participants are ardent users of the social utility Facebook and that socio- economic and racial variables do not factor significantly into Facebook accessibility. The learners believe that Facebook does not have any negative impact on their History work. The data I worked with pointed to the contrary. The History marks were in fact lower than the First Additional marks across both grades and all the classes. This could be attributed (at least in part) to a lack of dedicated attention to grammaticality and writing style in the History classroom and an emphasis on factual correctness instead. Although they did not believe Facebook-interaction translated into weaker marks, almost half of the learners stated that Facebook does indeed have an impact on their written work. In considering the possible relation between Facebook-speak and academic performance, the study found that the Afrikaans L1 learners achieved lower marks in both their First Additional language (their L2) and History in comparison to the English L1 learners using the same measures. This possibly indicates not only high exposure to Facebook-speak, but also limited exposure to standardised forms of Afrikaans as it is used in other genres. The written exercise completed by the learners accounted for the majority of data that substantiated the hypothesis that Facebook-speak impacts the written academic work of learners at school. The Afrikaans medium learners scored weaker marks than the English medium participants. The overall non-formal language features were significantly more in the exercises written by Afrikaans medium learners. The abundance of non-formal language features represented in the learner participants’ written work can be related to any of a number of variables. Negative perceptions among teachers and learners regarding multimodalities and digital literacies do not allow the development of curricula or learning materials which integrate such new literacies in the learning process. The reality that learners’ world is one where digital communication and short messaging is likely to increase rather than disappear, obliges a search for effective ways of incorporating such real world uses of language into educational structures in a thorough and integrative way. Until tried and tested methods have been achieved, traditional literacies appear not to be developing, while the notion of new literacies is still on the backburner in South African schools. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie studie ondersoek die uitwerking van tipiese sosialenetwerk-taal soos die van Facebook (sogenaamde Facebook-speak) op die geskrewe akademiese werk van ‘n uitgesoekte groep hoërskoolleerders. Die Algemene oogmerk van die studie was om die heersende toegang tot Facebook en dus die blootstelling aan Facebook-speak van die leerders te bepaal en om vas te stel of daar getuienis van kenmerkende Facebook- speak in die geskrewe akadiemiese werk van hierdie leerders is. Agt-en-tagtig leerders van ‘n Engels-Afrikaans dubbelmediumskool in ‘n middelklas-omgewing in die Wes-Kaap het aan die studie deelgeneem. Die deelnemers het ingesluit 44 Afrikaansmedium-leerders en 44 Engelsmedium-leerders. Hiervan was 51 in graad 8 en 37 in graad 9. Die leerder-deelnemers het vraelyste voltooi om aan te toon wat die frekwensie en omvang van hul Facebook-gebruik was. Hulle eie herkenning van aspekte van Facebook- speak is ook getoets. ‘n Geskrewe oefening is by die vraelys aangeheg sodat die leerders self kon aandui wat hulle as kenmerke van Facebook- speak beskou. Die spesifieke kenmerke wat die studie voorsien het, was (doelbewuste) spelfoute, onkonvensionele punktuasie, oorpunktuasie, die uitsluiting van funksionele woorde, die oormatige gebruik van afkortings en akronieme en die insluiting van ikone vir emosies (sg “smileys”) in geskrewe akademiese werk. Bykomstige kenmerke wat geidentifiseer is, was die onkonvensionele gebruik van grammatikale tydsaanduidings en sinstruktuur. Die studie het veronderstel dat die hoë blootstelling aan Facebook- speak en die beperkte blootstelling aan formele akademiese skryfwerk ‘n uitwerking op die akademiese werk van leerders sou hê. ‘n Aanspraak dat die uitwerking van Facebook-spraak naspeurbaar in die skoolwerk van leerders sou wees, is ondersoek. Die studie het dus die werklike akademiese punte van die leerders in een semester in twee van hul vakke, naamlik Eerste Addisionele Taal, en Geskiedenis, in verband gebring met die vraelys-data. Die ondersoeker het veronderstel dat in die taalvak daar meer aandag aan aspekte van grammatika en skryfwerk gegee sou word, sodat die uitwerking van Facebook-speak in Geskiedenis meer waarskynlik merkbaar sou wees en dus ook uit hulle punte vir die onderskeie vakke sou blyk. Die veronderstelling was dat swak skryfvaardighede duideliker na vore sou kom in Geskiedenis as in ‘n taalvak, en dat swakker taalvaardighede met laer punte sou korreleer. Vyf onderwyser-deelnemers van dieselfde skool het ook ‘n vraelys voltooi oor die sigbare kenmerke van Facebook- speak in die leerders se geskrewe werk. In ‘n oopvraag-afdeling van die vraelys het hulle ook kommentaar gelewer oor digitale geletterdheid en die impak daarvan op leerders se geskrewe akademiese werk. Die studie laat blyk dat die leerder-deelnemers ywerige gebruikers van die Facebook-diens is en dat sosio-ekonomiese en rasse-veranderlikes geen beduidende rol speel in Facebook-toegang nie. Die leerders meen dat Facebook geen negatiewe uitwerking op hul Geskiedenis-werk het nie. Die data dui egter op die teendeel. Die Geskiedenispunte was inderdaad laer as die Eerste Addisionele Taal-punte vir beide graad-groepe en al die klasse. Dit kan dalk deels toegeskryf word aan ‘n gebrek aan doelgerigte aandag aan grammatikaliteit en skryfstyl in die Geskiedenis-klaskamers en ‘n groter klem op feitelike korrektheid. Ofskoon die leerders gemeen het hulle Facebook-interaksie lei nie tot swakker punte nie, het byna die helfte van hulle beweer dat Facebook inderdaad ‘n uitwerking op hulle geskrewe werk het. By die oorweging van die moontlike verhouding tussen Facebook-speak en akademiese prestasie, bevind die studie dat die Afrikaans L1-leerders laer punte gekry het in beide hul Eerste Addisionele Taal (hulle L2) en Geskiedenis vergeleke met die Engels L1-leerders. Dit dui moontlik op ‘n hoë blootstelling aan Facebook- speak onder die Afrikaanse leerders, maar ook beperkte blootstelling aan gestandaardiseerde vorme van Afrikaans soos dit voorkom in ander genres. Die geskrewe oefening het die meeste data opgelewer ter ondersteuning van die hipotese dat Facebook- speak ‘n uitwerking het op die geskrewe akademiese werk van skoolleerders. Die Afrikaansmedium-leerders het laer punte gekry as hulle Engelsmedium eweknieë. Die oorheersende nie-formele taalkenmerke was beduidend meer aanwesig in die oefeninge wat deur die Afrikaansmedium leerders geskryf is. Die oormaat nie-formele taalkenmerke wat in die leerder-deelnemers se geskrewe werk voorkom kan met verskeie veranderlikes in verband gestel word. Negatiewe persepsies onder onderwysers en leerders rakends multimodaliteit en digitale geletterdheid laat waarskynlik nie toe vir ontwikkeling van kurrikula of leermateriaal wat aansluit by nuwe geletterdheidsvorme in die leerproses nie. Die werklikheid dat die leerder in ‘n wêreld leef waar digitale kommunikasie en kortboodskap-flitse waarskynlik eerder gaan toeneem as gaan verdwyn, maak dit belangrik dat daar gesoek word na doeltreffende maniere waarop sulke gebruike van taal in die regte wêreld deeglik in die onderwysstrukture geintegreer sal word. Terwyl beproefde en bewese metodes nog buite bereik is en tradisionele geletterdheid skynbaar nie ontwikkel nie, lyk dit asof die idee van nuwe geletterdhede in Suid-Afrikaanse skole nog net toekomsmusiek is.

Thesis (MA)--Stellenbosch University, 2014. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Hydraulic fracturing is a geo-engineering procedure designed to extract shale gas from below the earth’s surface. Shale gas is often considered a natural, alternative source of energy that has the potential to increase global energy supplies but the scientific literature is not unanimous regarding the implications that hydraulic fracturing may have, and whether it should continue (Vermeulen 2012). Given the contentious nature of hydraulic fracturing, this study investigates the ways in which hydraulic fracturing is represented in South African media texts. The study draws on Gee’s (1996) model of critical discourse analysis (CDA), which views discourse as a means to represent and reproduce social practices. Thus, the study conceptualises hydraulic fracturing as a social practice with an affiliated discourse or discourses, which represent or construct the process of hydraulic fracturing, as well as the participants involved and context in which it takes place. Furthermore, these discourses are also presumed to have the power to legitimise, and thus perpetuate hydraulic fracturing, or to critique it. Subsequent to an examination of 32 South African news articles, and a close and critical analysis of four of them, this study reveals that hydraulic fracturing is presented in both positive and negative ways. Where positive constructions prevail, writers draw on the perspectives of those working in multinational corporations (MNCs) to construct shale gas as a way to increase energy supplies and achieve economic prosperity. Where negative constructions prevail, writers draw on the perspectives of environmentalists to construct hydraulic fracturing as an environmentally-harmful activity that depletes natural resources. In doing so, the study not only highlights the media’s role in perpetuating confusion about hydraulic fracturing, but highlights dominant ideologies that give rise to common representations of hydraulic fracturing in media texts. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hidrobreking is ’n geo-ingenieursprosedure waardeur ondergrondse skaliegas ontgin word. Skaliegas word dikwels beskou as ’n natuurlike, alternatiewe energiebron met die potensiaal om die wêreld-energievoorraad te verhoog, maar die wetenskaplike literatuur is verdeeld oor die effek van hidrobreking en die voortsetting van hierdie praktyk (Vermeulen 2012). Gegee die netelige aard van die onderwerp, word daar in hierdie studie ondersoek gedoen na die wyses waarop hidrobreking voorgestel word in Suid-Afrikaanse mediatekste. Die analise word gerig deur Gee (1996) se model van kritiese diskoersanalise waarvolgens diskoers dien as instrument in die voorstelling en voortsetting van sosiale praktyke. As sodanig word hidrobreking in hierdie studie gekonsepsualiseer as ’n sosiale praktyk met een of meer gepaardgaande diskoerse wat die proses van hidrobreking, die deelnmers in hierdie proses asook die konteks waarin hierdie proses plaasvind, voorstel of konstrueer. Verder word daar veronderstel dat hierdie diskoerse die krag het om hidrobreking te regverdig en sodoende voor te sit, of om dit te kritiseer. Op grond van die bestudering van 34 Suid-Afrikaanse nuusberigte en ’n kritiese ontleding van vier daarvan, word daar bevind dat hidrobreking op beide positiewe en negatiewe wyses voorgestel word. In die geval van positiewe konstruksies steun skrywers op die uitgangspunte van persone in multinasionale korporasies om skaliegas te konstrueer as ’n manier om energievoorrade te verhoog en ekonomiese vooruitgang te bevorder. In die geval van negatiewe konstruksies steun skrywers op die uitgangspunte van omgewingsdeskundiges om hidrobreking te konstrueer as ’n omgewingskadelike aktiwiteit wat natuurlike hulpbronne uitput. Hierdie bevindinge beklemtoon die rol van die media in die voortgesette verwarring aangaande hidrobreking, asook die dominante ideologieë wat aanleiding gee tot algemene voorstellings van hidrobreking in mediatekste.

Thesis (MPhil)--Stellenbosch University, 2014. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This study investigates the language shift from isiXhosa to Afrikaans in a group of indigenous African language speakers in a rural Northern Cape community. It plots the process that took place over three generations and focuses on the language identity of some members of this community as portrayed by their language biographies and linguistic repertoires. This phenomenon was researched after preliminary enquiries into linguistic identities and bilingualism in the Hopetown area revealed that although most inhabitants use Afrikaans as L1 at home, at school and in public, a considerable number did not present the anticipated monolingual Afrikaans with minimal L2-English repertoires. People from indigenous ethnic groups like the Xhosa were also found to be speaking Afrikaans as home language rather than isiXhosa. The thesis gives a description and explanation of how a process of language shift from isiXhosa to Afrikaans took place. The findings suggest that a number of Xhosas started to migrate from the Eastern Cape to the Hopetown area in the Northern Cape during the 1960s when employment opportunities in the State‟s water and irrigation development scheme became available. The Afrikaans-speaking employers expected their workforce to speak Afrikaans and in the interest of economic survival, the disenfranchised workers learned to speak Afrikaans. In addition to the employment situation, the accommodation situation was unusual in that Hopetown‟s township was seen as a Coloured area. In the time when the Group Areas Act dictated that ethnic segregation had to be enforced, the influx of Xhosa and other ethnic groups was not expected. When it happened, it was either overlooked or remained unnoticed. The Xhosa workers, with their families, had to blend in with the Coloured population in order not to attract attention. The research follows the language shift based on information gained from questionnaires and by means of narrative analysis. Case studies of selected respondents reveal how the individuals gradually settled into a new language identity without complete loss of their traditional ties to language and cultural practices. A small story analysis sheds light on how selected members of the community experienced the shift and how they perceive their roles in the process. This thesis ultimately shows the contribution that language biographies can make to sociolinguistic research. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie studie ondersoek die taalverskuiwing van isiXhosa na Afrikaans in ʼn inheemse groep Afrikataalsprekers in ʼn plattelandse Noord-Kaapse gemeenskap. Dit volg die proses wat oor drie generasies plaasgevind het en fokus op die taalidentiteit van enkele lede van dié gemeenskap soos uitgebeeld in hulle taalbiografieë en taal repertoires. Hierdie verskynsel is nagevors nadat voorlopige navrae in verband met talige identiteit en tweetaligheid in die Hopetown-omgewing daarop gedui het dat alhoewel die meeste inwoners Afrikaans tuis, by die skool en in die openbaar as eerstetaal gebruik, ʼn aansienlike getal nie die verwagte profiel van ʼn eentalige Afrikaanse gemeenskap met minimale tweedetaal-Engels vertoon het nie. Mense van inheemse etniese afkoms soos die Xhosa het ook laat blyk dat hulle Afrikaans eerder as isiXhosa as huistaal gebruik. Die tesis gee ʼn beskrywing en verduideliking van hoe ʼn proses van taalverskuiwing van isiXhosa na Afrikaans plaasgevind het. Volgens die bevindinge het ʼn groeiende getal Xhosas in die 1960s uit die Oos-Kaap na die Hopetown-omgewing in die Noord-Kaap begin migreer toe werksgeleenthede in die Staat se water- en besproeiingskema beskikbaar gekom het. Die Afrikaanssprekende werkgewers het van hulle werkers verwag om Afrikaans te praat. In die belang van ekonomiese oorlewing het die werkers wat daar geen burgerregte gehad het nie, Afrikaans geleer. Bykomend tot die werksituasie was die behuisingsituasie in die Hopetown nedersettings ongewoon daarin dat dit as Kleurlinggebied geklassifiseer is maar ook mense van ander etniese herkoms gehuisves het. In die tyd toe die Groepsgebiedewet bepaal het dat etniese segregasie toegepas moes word, is daar geen voorsiening gemaak vir die instroming van Xhosa en ander etniese groepe nie. Toe dit gebeur het, is dit óf oor die hoof gesien, óf dit het ongemerk gebeur. Die Xhosa werkers, met hulle gesinne, moes inskakel by die Kleurlinggemeenskap ten einde nie die aandag van die gesaghebbers of hulleself te vestig nie. Die navorsing volg die taalverskuiwing op basis van inligting uit vraelyste en met behulp van narratiewe analise. Gevallestudies van uitgesoekte respondente wys hoe die individue geleidelik ʼn nuwe taalidentiteit aangeneem het sonder totale verlies van hulle tradisionele bande met taal en kulturele gebruike. ʼn Klein storie analise werp lig op hoe geselekteerde lede van die gemeenskap die verskuiwing ervaar het en wat hulle siening is van hulle rolle in die proses. Hierdie tesis werp ten slotte lig op die bydrae wat taalbiografie tot sosiolinguistiese navorsing kan maak.

Thesis (MA)--Stellenbosch University, 2014. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This study examines the language policy and implementation outside and inside the classroom in a multilingual and multicultural international school. Specifically, it aims at giving an insight into how linguistic and cultural diversity is managed at Windhoek International School (WIS). It takes a specific interest in the kinds of language policy that determine which languages are used in education in a context where both teachers and learners are L1 speakers of a considerable number of different languages. The participants in this study are multilingual learners and teachers of WIS. The study uses data from the school records, a questionnaire, interviews and observation. The analysis of the data is descriptive, interpretive and explanatory. The findings of the study are that the language policy at WIS is articulated in such a manner that it encourages monolingual norms although the school’s community is multilingual. English is the MoI, used in official communication across the school and also as a language of communication with the school’s stakeholders. Other European languages, namely- French, German and Portuguese are officially taught as modern foreign languages. Significantly, none of the local Namibian languages are taught in the school. However, the school does not bar its learners and teachers from using their LotE especially outside of the classroom. The study also shows that the language ecology at WIS demonstrates a situation of polyglossia where English is on top of the language hierarchy. From the findings, it is suggested that since WIS recognises the multilingual and multicultural composition of its learners and teachers, its whole school policy should be looked at again to reflect current thinking in language-in-education policy. The policy should place emphasis on dynamic bilingualism by supporting and encouraging the teaching and learning of LotE, including local indigenous languages, as a means of scaffolding and as a means of bridging knowledge development in the school. However, for purposes of examination, the school should place emphasis on the extensive use of English to enable its learners to meet the requirements of external examiners. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie studie bestudeer die taalbeleid en implementering daarvan binne en buite klaskamerverband, by ‘n veeltalige en multikulturele internasionale skool. Spesifiek, is die doel om insae te gee in hoe talige en kulturele diversiteit by Windhoek Internasionale Skool (WIS) hanteer word. Dit stel belang in die verskillende soorte taalbeleid wat bepaal watter tale in onderrig en leer gebruik word in ‘n konteks waar sowel die onderwysers as die leerders eerstetaalsprekers is van ‘n aansienlike aantal verskillende tale. Die deelnemers in hierdie studie is veeltalige leerders en onderwysers aan die WIS. Die studie gebruik data wat bekom is uit skoolrekords, vraelyste, onderhoude en deur waarneming. Die analise van die data word gedoen in die vorm van beskrywing, interpretasie en verduideliking. Die bevindinge van die studie hou in dat die taalbeleid aan die WIS so geartikuleer is dat dit eentalige norme ondersteun, alhoewel die gemeenskap wat deur die skool bedien word, veeltalig is. Engels is die medium van onderrig (MvO/MoI) aan die skool, word in amptelike kommunikasie binne die skool gebruik, en is ook die kommunikasietaal by alle belanghebbendes van die skool (ouers, borge, ens.). Ander Europese tale, naamlik Frans, Duits en Portugees, word as moderne vreemde tale binne die skool se leerplan aangebied. Heel opvallend, word geeneen van die plaaslike Namibiese tale in die skool aangebied nie. Ten spyte van hierdie taalreëlings word leerders en onderwysers van die skool nie beperk in die gebruik van ander tale as Engels (LotEs) nie, veral buite die klaskamers. Die studie toon aan dat die taalomgewing by WIS tekenend is van ‘n sg. poliglossiese gemeenskap waar Engels in die taalhiërargie bo-aan te staan kom. Die bevindinge suggereer dat die WIS, in die lig van hulle erkenning van die veeltalige en multikulturele samestelling van die leerders en onderwysers, sy skoolbeleid in die geheel behoort te heroorweeg, sodat dit belyn word met die mees resente denke oor taal-in-onderrig-beleid. Die beleid behoort op dinamiese tweetaligheid klem te lê deur die onderrig en leer van ander tale as Engels (LotEs), ook plaaslike inheemse tale, aan te moedig en te ondersteun. Dit moet so gedoen word dat dit as “steierwerk”kan dien in die oorbrugging wat nodig is vir leer deur medium van ‘n tweede of vreemde taal. Daarbenewens word aanbeveel dat die skool vir eksamineringsdoeleindes aandag skenk aan die uitgebreide gebruik van Engels, sodat leerders in staat is om aan die vereistes wat eksterne eksaminatore stel, te beantwoord.

Thesis (MA)--Stellenbosch University, 2014. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This study investigates multimodal assessment in the South African higher education context. The communication landscape of students is becoming increasingly multimodal, resulting in a shift away from higher education institutions’ preferred mode (that is, the written mode). This is partly as a result of the digital era in which we live, as the verbal, visual and audio modes co-exist to make meaning, thereby creating new forms of text (Iedema 2003: 33). Although there is a common acceptance that the communication landscape has changed, higher education institutions still seem to consider the written text and written communication as the most dominant form of meaning-making (Lea 2004: 743). Thus, there is a disparity between the types of literacies with which students arrive at university, and the types of literacies that they are expected to use in university. I argue that this disparity is problematic for education, and maintain that pedagogies be transformed in order to resolve this issue. In this way, students will be able to “benefit from learning in ways that allow them to participate fully in public, community, and economic life” (Cazden et al. 1996: 60). Data for this research includes assignments that were produced by second-year students of Applied English Language Studies, a subject offered by the Department of General Linguistics at Stellenbosch University. These assignments include a multimodal component as well as a formal, written component. Analysis of their assignments revealed that students show great dexterity in their creations of multimodal texts. Apart from their design skills, it was revealed that students have knowledge of a wide variety of social discourses, which is currently mostly ignored in the education context. Thus, I propose that this knowledge, along with the digital and visual design skills with which students arrive at university, be valorised and utilised as an entry point for the teaching of linguistic literacy. This proposal is partly supported by schema theory, a cognitive theory of learning, which entails that existing knowledge is used as a platform on which to build new knowledge. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie studie ondersoek multimodale assessering in die Suid-Afrikaanse hoër onderwys konteks. Die kommunikasie landskap van studente word al hoe meer multimodaal wat ʼn skuif weg van die voorgekeurde modaliteit (die geskrewe) in hoër onderwys teweegbring. Dit is gedeeltelik a.g.v. die digitale era waarin ons leef waarin die verbale, visuele en klank modaliteite saam gebruik word om betekenis te skep; dus word nuwe vorme van teks geskep (Iedema 2003: 33). Alhoewel daar algemeen aanvaar word dat die kommunikasie landskap verander het, beskou hoër onderwys instansies nog steeds die geskrewe teks en geskrewe kommunikasie as die dominante vorm van betekenisskepping (Lea 2004: 743). Daar is dus ʼn gaping tussen die tipes geletterheid waarmee studente by die universiteit opdaag en watter daar van hulle verwag word om te gebruik in die universiteit. Ek voer aan dat hierdie gaping problematies is vir opvoedkunde en stel voor dat pedagogie verander moet word om dit aan te spreek. Op hierdie manier kan studente voordeel trek op maniere wat hul toelaat om ten volle deel te neem aan publieke, gemeenskaplike en ekonomiese lewe (Cazden et al. 1996: 60). Data vir hierdie navorsing sluit opdragte in wat deur tweede jaar Applied English Language Studies (ʼn vak wat deur die Departement Algemene Taalwetenskap by Stellenbosch Universiteit aangebied word) studente uitgevoer is. Die opdragte sluit ʼn multimodale element sowel as ʼn formele geskrewe element in. Analise van die opdragte wys dat studente vaardigheide het in die produksie van multimodale tekste. Behalwe die produksie vaardighede wys die analise ook dat hierdie studente kennis het van ʼn wye reeks sosiale diskoerse wat op die oomblik meestal geïgnoreer word in die opvoedkundige konteks. Ek voer dus aan dat hierdie kennis sowel as die digitale- en visuele produksie vaardigheide waarmee studente by die universiteit opdaag, gevalideer en gebruik word as ingangspoort vir die aanleer van talige geletterheid. Deels word die voorstel deur skema teorie ondersteun, ʼn teorie wat in kognitiewe benaderinge tot leer ontwikkel het en wat voorstel dat bestaande kennis gebruik kan word as ʼn platform om nuwe kennis te bou.

Thesis (MA)--Stellenbosch University, 2014. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This study focuses on the requestive behaviour, including perceptions of politeness and directness, of Omani second language (L2) English students at Nizwa University in Oman as revealed by their written responses to real life scenarios. The study is an attempt to improve linguistic understanding of pragmatic differences, with reference to the similarities and differences between Omani L2 English students and L1 English speakers’ communicative proficiency, in order to contribute to improved language teaching curricula. The research design consisted of an initial series of two questionnaires which required that the participants rate given responses based on their perceptions of ‘politeness’ and ‘indirectness’; a third discourse completion test (DCT) that required participants to respond in writing in the form of a request to five real life scenarios; and a fourth questionnaire that required teachers to judge the written responses of the DCT according to five criteria. Additionally, the Omani-speaking teachers of L2 English were interviewed and asked questions relating to their responses from a sociopragmatic/ cultural perspective. The Omani teachers’ responses were then used to assist in the analysis of the written response data. The four instruments above thus used both quantitative and qualitative research methods. The results of the data analysis showed that (1) the query preparatory is considered by both groups to be the most polite request strategy and is used to mitigate imposition; (2) Omani L2 English students consider the words should and must to be most impolite in contrast with the L1 English speakers who consider the mood derivable to be the most impolite request strategy; (3) mild hints are considered far more polite by L1 English speakers than by Omani L2 English students; (4) politeness is influenced by differences in perceptions of social variables such as social distance, social power and degree of imposition; (5) direct strategies are not considered impolite and are used six times more frequently by Omani L2 English students than by L1 English speakers in low-imposition contextual situations; and (6) positive transfer and conventionalisation of the time intensifier has been produced and the strategy is used more than twice as much by the Omani L2 English students than by the L1 English speakers. In contrast, the L1 English speakers use the preparator 11 times more frequently than the Omani L2 English students who predominantly have no pragmalinguistic knowledge of this tactic. The study highlights the need for pragmalinguistic and sociopragmatic training of students in the classroom and for pragmatics to be included in the material and curriculum design of English language learning programmes. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie studie fokus op hoe versoeke, insluitend die persepsies van beleefdheid en direktheid, van tweede taal (T2) Omani studente aan die Universiteit van Nizwa in Oman geformuleer word soos geopenbaar deur hulle skriftelike reaksies op realistiese lewenscenarios tydens vraagstelling. Die studie is ‘n poging om taalkundige begrip van pragmatiese verskille te verbeter, met verwysing na die ooreenkomste en verskille tussen Omani T2 Engelssprekendes en L1 Engelssprekendes se kommunikatiewe vaardighede, ten einde by te dra tot die verbetering van taalonderrig leerplanne. Die navorsing het bestaan uit ‘n aanvanklike reeks van twee vraelyste wat vereis dat deelnemers antwoorde gee op grond van hulle persepsies van beleefdheid en indirektheid; ‘n derde diskoers voltooiings toets (DVT) wat vereis dat deelnemers skriftelik reageer op versoeke in vyf realistiese lewenscenarios; en ‘n vierde vraelys wat vereis dat onderwysers die skriftelike reaksies op die DVT in vyf areas beoordeel. Daarbenewens is die T2 Omani onderwysers ondervra met betrekking tot hulle antwoorde vanuit ‘n sosio-pragmatiese perspektief. Die Omani onderwysers se antwoorde is vervolgens gebruik om die ontleding van die skriftelike response te doen. Die bogenoemde vier instrumente gebruik dus beide kwalitatiewe en kwantitatiewe navorsingsmetodes. Die resultate van die data-analise toon dat (1) die “query preparatory” deur beide groepe as die mees beleefde vraag-strategie beskou word en gebruik word om taakoplegging te versag; (2) T2 sprekers beskou die woorde moet en behoort meestal as onbeskof, in teenstelling met die T1 Engelssprekendes, wat die “mood derivable” as die mees onbeskofte vraag-strategie ervaar; (3) die “mild hint” word as baie meer beleefd deur L1 Engelssprekendes as deur T2-sprekers ervaar; (4) beleefdheid word beinvloed deur verskille in persepsies van sosiale faktore soos sosiale afstand en –druk, en die graad van oplegging; (5) direktheid word nie as onbeskof gesien nie, en kom ses keer meer voor by T2 sprekers in laer taalvaardigheid situasies; en (6) positiewe oordrag en vaslegging van tyd as ‘n drukkrag het voorgekom, en die taktiek word meer as twee keer soveel deur die T2 sprekers as deur die T1 Engelssprekendes gebruik. In teenstelling gebruik die T1 Engelssprekendes die “preparatory” 11 keer meer as die T2 sprekers, wat meestal geen pragma-linguistiese kennis van hierdie tegniek het nie. Die studie beklemtoon die noodsaaklikheid van pragma-linguistiese en sosio-linguistiese opleiding in die klaskamer, en dat pragmatika in materiaal en kurrikulumontwerp vir Engelse taalleer programme ingesluit word.