Orientadores: Munir S. Skaf, Igor Polikarpov / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Quimica / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-10T11:55:27Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Martinez_Leandro_D.pdf: 4821126 bytes, checksum: 7d01e9286d04e5bd7cd7cb84abe10476 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2007 / Resumo: Receptores nucleares (NRs) formam uma superfamília de fatores de transcrição. Os receptores de hormônios mais conhecidos são os receptores do ácido retinóico, do estrógeno, da progesterona, os dos glucocorticóides e os receptores do hormônio tireoideano (TRs). Os NRs são formados por três domínios: um domínio N-terminal que contém um fator de transcrição, um domínio de ligação com o DNA e um domínio ao qual os hormônios se ligam (LBD). O domínio de ligação com os hormônios é o maior dos três, sendo formado por cerca de 260 resíduos, 12 a-hélices e poucas e pequenas folhas-b. Aqui apresentamos estudos da dinâmica dos LBDs dos TRs. Os TRs são responsáveis pelo controle do metabolismo basal, pelo consumo de gorduras e ácidos graxos, e pelo controle da atividade cardíaca. Há fundamentalmente duas isoformas de TRs: TRa e TRb. Ligantes seletivos para uma das isoformas têm um grande valor farmacológico. As estruturas cristalográficas dos LBDs, no entanto, têm permitido apenas uma apreciação parcial das relações entre a estrutura e a função dos TRs. Aspectos dinâmicos dos LBDs parecem ter uma importância fundamental em vários mecanismos fisiológicos. Neste trabalho, apresentamos estudos de vários aspectos da dinâmica molecular dos LBDs dos receptores do hormônio tireoideano. Técnicas não-convencionais de simulações de dinâmica molecular são usadas, e novas metodologias e técnicas de análise de dados são propostas. Os estudos se iniciam pela definição dos mecanismos preferenciais de dissociação dos ligantes. O caminho preferencial de dissociação e seu fundamento estrutural são determinados. Em seguida, são feitos estudos das razões estruturais e dinâmicas da seletividade dos ligantes Triac e GC-1. No caso do Triac, as estruturas cristalográficas são aparentemente contraditórias com a seletividade observada. As simulações resolvem essa aparente contradição, e sugerem que são fatores entrópicos que fazem do Triac um ligante b-seletivo. No caso do GC-1,as simulações e as estruturas cristalográficas mostraram que são interações entre resíduos do LBD que conferem a b-seletividade. Estudos da desnaturação dos TRs por temperatura também são apresentados. As simulações mostram que a desnaturação dos LBDs ocorre primeiro pelo desenovelamento das hélices. A expansão da estrutura com a exposição do seu núcleo hidrofóbico ocorre apenas em uma segunda etapa. O resultado é coerente com estudos de dicroísmo circular nos quais uma grande estabilização do LBD pela associação do Triac é observada. Por fim, estudos dos mecanismos de difusão térmica (redistribuição de energia vibracional) dos LBDs são apresentados. Estes estudos mostram que existem três mecanismos básicos de transferência de energia cinética em proteínas. Diferentes resíduos têm diferentes contribuições para a transferência de energia. No caso dos LBDs dos receptores do hormônio tireoideano, as Argininas possuem um papel particularmente importante. Os resíduos que se destacam para a difusão térmica possuem relevância funcional, mostrando que os mecanismos observados podem ser importantes para a estabilidade dos LBDs pela dissipação de perturbações cinéticas. / Abstract: Nuclear receptors (NRs) comprise a superfamily of transcription factors. The receptors of the most well known hormones are the retinoic acid, estrogen, progesterone, glucocorticois and the thyroid hormone receptors (TRs). NRs are composed by three domains: An N-terminal domain, that contains a transcription factor, a DNA binding domain, and a ligand binding domain (LBD). The LBD is the largest of the three domains, and it is composed by roughly 260 residues, 12 a-helices and a few small b-sheets. Here we study the dynamics of the LBDs of TRs. TRs are responsible for the control of the basal metabolism, the consumption of fat, and for the control of cardiac activity. There are two TR isoforms: TRa and TRb. Ligands that are selective to one or other isoform have important pharmaceutical value. Crystallographic structures of the LBDs, however, have provided only limited information on the relationships between structure and function of TRs. Dynamic mechanisms of the LBDs seem to be involved in several physiological processes. In this work, we describe various aspects of the molecular dynamics of the LBDs of TRs. Non-conventional molecular dynamics simulation techniques are used, and new methodologies of simulation and data analysis are proposed in each study. First, we describe the mechanisms of ligand dissociation from the LBDs. The most important ligand dissociation pathway is obtained, and the structural interpretation for its relevance is elucidated. Next, studies on the selectivity of the TRb-selective ligands Triac and GC-1 are shown. For Triac, the crystallographic structures seem to be contradictory with the observed selectivity. The simulations provide an explanation for this apparent contradiction, and reveal that entropic factors are responsible for the observed selectivity. For GC-1, simulations and crystallographic structures jointly show that interaction between residues of the LBD are mostly responsible for the b-selectivity. Studies on the temperature-induced denaturation of TRs are then presented. These simulations have shown that the LBDs denaturate first by the unwinding of the helices. Expansion of the hydrophobic core occurs only as a second step. These results explain the strong stabilizing effect of Triac on the LBDs. Finally, the mechanisms of thermal diffusion (vibrational energy transfer) on the LBDs are presented. This study shows that there are three basic mechanisms of kinetic energy diffusion in proteins. Different residues have different contributions to kinetic energy dissipation. In the case of the LBDs of TRs, Arginines have particularly important roles. Residues that are important for heat diffusion are also functionally relevant. Therefore, the thermal diffusion mechanisms may be important for the stability of the LBDs by means of the dissipation of kinetic energy perturbations. / Doutorado / Físico-Química / Doutor em Ciências

Orientador: Munir Salomão Skaf / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Quimica / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-14T02:11:37Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Souza_PauloCesarTellesde_M.pdf: 12351000 bytes, checksum: dc51e5bda58323fa5ce35779e31e9302 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2009 / Resumo: Os Receptores Nucleares (NRs) são proteínas que têm a função de regular a transcrição de genes através da associação com hormônios. Os NRs são formados por até quatro domínios, sendo o mais importante, o Domínio de Ligação com Ligante (LBD). O Receptor do Hormônio Tireoideano (TR) é um NR responsável por diversas funções no corpo, como controle da frequência cardíaca e do metabolismo de lipídios. Existem dois grupos de isoformas do TR: a e b. As diferenças entre eles são importantes para o desenho de novos fármacos seletivos, a serem utilizados no tratamento de disfunções tireoideanas como a Síndrome de Resistência ao Hormônio Tireoideano (RTH), causada por mutações no TRb. Existem poucos estudos que mostram como mudanças estruturais e dinâmicas decorrentes de mutações podem levar a perdas funcionais. Neste trabalho, foram estudados os efeitos de mutações na estrutura do LBD do TRb, através de simulações de dinâmica molecular. Em uma primeira etapa, foram escolhidos cinco mutantes para um estudo mais detalhado. Verificou-se que duas de três mutações estudadas no resíduo I280 provocam modificações estruturais na hélice H12, que podem explicar a perda de interação com correguladores, observada em experimentos. Além disso, verificou-se que essas e outras mudanças induzem a entrada de água no sítio de ligação. Já os mutantes L428R e R429Q apresentaram diferenças importantes com relação à estrutura nativa na região de dimerização, na hélice H12 (que interage com correguladores) e no grampo b (envolvido com a dissociação de hormônios). Análises mais globais de simulações de 40 mutantes, mostraram que, em grande parte, as mutações promovem instabilidade do LBD, perda de interação com hormônio, e entrada de água no sítio de ligação, inclusive em regiões hidrofóbicas. Estes resultados podem explicar a perda de afinidade pelo hormônio, mesmo em mutações longe do sítio de ligação / Abstract: Nuclear Receptors (NRs) are proteins that have role of regulating the transcription of genes through the association with hormones. The NRs are formed by up to four domains, being the Ligant Binding Domain (LBD) the most important one. Thyroid hormone receptor (TR) is responsible for several functions in the body, such as control of the heart rate and of the metabolism of lipids. There are two groups of the TR isoforms: a and b. Differences between them are important for the design of new selective drugs to be used in the treatment of thyroid disorders such as resistance to thyroid hormone syndrome (RTH), caused by mutations in TRb. There are just a few studies that show how structural and dynamical changes caused by mutations may lead to functional loss. In this work we studied the effects of mutations in the structure of the TRb LBD by applying molecular dynamics technique. First, we have chosen five mutants for a more detailed investigation. We found that two of three studied mutations in residue I280 caused structural changes in helix H12, what can explain the loss of interaction with coregulators, recently seen in experiments. We also found that these and other changes induce the water entrance in the binding site. On the other hand, the L428R and R429Q mutants have shown important differences related to native structure in the dimerization region, helix H12 (which interacts with coregulators) and b-hairpin (involved in the dissociation of hormones). The results of global analysis carried out for 40 mutants showed that the mutations are greatly responsible for instability of LDB region, loss of interaction with hormone and water entrance even in hydrophobic regions. These results may explain the loss of affinity with the hormone, even when the mutated region is located far from the ligand binding site / Mestrado / Físico-Química / Mestre em Química

Sabe-se que o hormônio tireoideano (HT) regula o desenvolvimento e crescimento dos ossos. No estudo, investigamos se o HT interage com o sistema nervoso simpático (SNS) controlando o crescimento longitudinal ósseo (CLO), e se essa possível interação depende do α2A-AR. Para tanto, avaliamos o efeito de 30 dias de hipotireoidismo (HIPO) e hipertireoidismo (HIPER) e α2A-AR-/- de 21 dias de idade. Vimos que os animais α2A-AR-/- apresentam menor comprimento no fêmur, tíbia, rádio, úmero e L4 quando comparados aos animais Selv. Como esperado, o HIPO e HIPER prejudicaram o CLO desses ossos nos camundongos Selv, entretanto, o efeito do HIPO foi mais deletério. A morfologia da LE distal do fêmur mostrou que os animais α2A-AR-/- eutireóideos (EUT) apresentam desorganização de zonas e alterações no número de condrócitos sendo o Hipotireoidismo o tratamento mais deletérios. Dados desse estudos sugerem que as vias PTHrP/Ihh e IGF-1/IGF-1R possam ser vias de convergência do SNS e HT na regulação da morfofisiologia da LE, envolvendo o α2A-AR. Observou-se que os animais α2A-AR-/- apresentam alterações no osso trabecular com potencialização com o hipotireoismo. Além disso, os animais α2A-AR-/- apresentam alterações a conectividade trabecular. Esses achados sugerem que o SNS e interage o HT dependente do α2A-AR. / It is known that the thyroid hormone (TH) regulates the development and growth of bones. In the study, we investigated whether the HT interacts with the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) controlling bone longitudinal growth (CLO), and if this possible interaction depends on α2A-AR -/-. Therefore, we evaluated the effect of 30 days of hypothyroidism (HYPO) and hyperthyroidism (HYPER) and α2A-AR -/- 21 days old. We have seen that α2A-AR -/- animals have shorter femur, tibia, radius, humerus and L4 compared to Selv animals. As expected, the HYPO and HYPER damaged the CLO of these bones in Selv mice, however, the effect of HYPO was more deleterious. The morphology of the distal femur LE showed that α2A-AR -/- animals euthyroid (EUT) have clutter zones and changes in the number of chondrocytes and Hypothyroidism most harmful treatment. Data from this study suggest that PTHrP pathways / Ihh and IGF-1 / IGF-1R can be SNS convergence and HT pathways in the regulation of the CO morphophysiology involving the α2A-AR. It was observed that α2A-AR -/- animals show changes in trabecular bone with augmentation with the hipotireoismo. Furthermore, α2A-AR-/- animals show changes trabecular connectivity. These findings suggest that the SNS and interacts the HT dependent α2A-AR.

O hormônio tireoidiano (HT) participa do controle de funções essenciais do organismo. A maioriados seus efeitos é mediada pela modulação da transcrição gênica e se manifesta em um período longo o suficiente para permitir a transcrição de genes específicos. Por outro lado, são crescentes na literatura as evidências de que o HT também promove efeitos que ocorrem em um curto espaço de tempo e que se manifestam mesmo na presença de inibidores da transcrição gênica. O GLUT4 é o principal transportador de glicose presente no músculo esquelético, no cardíaco e no tecido adiposo. O seu processo de translocação e inserção na membrana plasmática resulta da ativação de vias de sinalização que ocorre a partir da interação da insulina com seus receptores de membrana. No músculo esquelético e cardíaco, uma segunda via que aciona o mecanismo de translocação do GLUT4 envolve a ativação da AMPK, processo desencadeado pela contração muscular. O presente estudo teve como objetivo avaliar: (i) no modelo in vivo (ratos Wistar), se o T3 e o T4 provocam agudamente a translocação do GLUT4 para a membrana plasmática; (ii) no modelo in vitro (células musculares L6 e adipócitos 3T3-L1), se o T3 e o T4 provocam o efeito descrito acima; e (iii) se esse efeito ocorre por ativação das vias de sinalização da insulina e/ou da contração muscular. Nossos estudos in vivo demonstram que a administração de T3 rapidamente aumentou o conteúdo de GLUT4 na fração correspondente à membrana plasmática no músculo esquelético e no tecido adiposo. No entanto, essa ação foi independente da ativação da PI3-K e da AMPK. Os estudos in vitro, mostraram que o T3 promove, rapidamente, um aumento na captação de glicose nas células L6 sem, contudo, alterar o conteúdo de GLUT4 presente na membrana. Esses resultados sugerem que essa ação do T3 ocorra devido a ativação do GLUT4 já presente na membrana ou devido a algum processo independente dessa proteína. Nossos resultados demonstram que ao lado das suas reconhecidas ações genômicas, o HT atua por mecanismos não genômicos regulando a translocação do GLUT4. Além disso, sugerem fortemente que o T3 participe, também por mecanismos não genômicos, do processo de ativação do GLUT4 já inserido na membrana. / The thyroid hormone (TH) participates in the control of essential functions of the organism. Most of its effects are mediated by modulation of gene transcription and take place over a long enough period of time to allow the transcription of specific genes. On the other hand, evidence that TH also promotes the effects that occur in a short period of time and which manifest even in the presence of inhibitors of gene transcription have been increasingly found in literature. GLUT4 is the main transporter of glucose in skeletal muscle, the heart and adipose tissue. Its translocation and insertion in the plasma membrane result from the activation of signaling pathways triggered by the interaction of insulin with membrane receptors. In skeletal muscle and the heart, a second pathway that activates the mechanism of GLUT4 translocation involves the activation of AMPK, a process triggered by muscle contraction. This study aimed at evaluating: (i) in the in vivo model (Wistar rats), if T3 and T4 acutely cause translocation of GLUT4 to the plasma membrane, (ii) in the in vitro model (L6 muscle cells and adipocytes 3T3 -L1), if T3 and T4 cause the effect described above; and (iii) whether this effect occurs by activation of the signaling pathways of insulin and/or muscle contraction. Our in vivo studies demonstrate that administration of T3 rapidly increased the amount of GLUT4 in the fraction corresponding to the plasma membrane in skeletal muscle and adipose tissue. However, this action did not depend on the activation of PI3-K and AMPK. In vitro studies showed that T3 quickly increases the glucose uptake in L6 cells, but without changing the amount of GLUT4 present in the membrane. These results suggest that this action of T3 occurs due to activation of GLUT4 already present in the membrane or due to some process which does not depend on this protein. Our results demonstrate that other than its known genomic actions, TH acts through nongenomic mechanisms regulating GLUT4 translocation. In addition, they strongly suggest that T3 participates, also through non-genomic mechanisms, in the activation process of GLUT4 already inserted in the membrane.

O diabetes mellitus (DM) é a endocrinopatia mais prevalente no planeta. Na vigência de DM e de obesidade a inflamação subclínica, em decorrência do aumento de infiltrado de células inflamatórias e aumentada expressão de citocinas inflamatórias em tecidos essenciais no controle da homeostase glicêmica, tem importante participação no desenvolvimento da resistência à insulina. Em estados de hipo ou hipertireoidismo ocorre redução captação de glicose em resposta à insulina no tecido adiposo e muscular esquelético, o que reforça a importância da integridade da função tireoidiana para o controle glicêmico. Recentemente, diversos estudos vem apontando uma correlação positiva entre DM e disfunções tireoidianas. Neste contexto, a hipótese do presente estudo foi de que o tratamento com triiodotironina (T3) promove efeito benéfico na sensibilidade à insulina em modelos experimentais de DM ou obesidade, por modulação da expressão de citocinas inflamatórias. Para testar nossa hipótese, ratos DM tipo 1 DM1 (indução por aloxana) ou obesos (indução por dieta de cafeteria) foram tratados com T3 por 4 semanas. Os ratos DM1 apresentaram hipotireoidismo primário e aumento de infiltrado de células inflamatórias no tecido adiposo periepididimal (TAP) e da expressão de fator de necrose tumoral α (TNF-α) e interleucina-6 (IL-6) no TAP e no músculo sóleo. O tratamento com T3 promoveu redução da glicemia, aumento da sensibilidade à insulina, e redução da expressão de TNF-α e IL-6 no TAP e no músculo sóleo. Os animais obesos apresentaram hipertireoidismo subclínico, aumento da glicemia, e redução da sensibilidade à insulina. O tratamento com T3 nesse modelo experimental promoveu aumento da sensibilidade à insulina e da tolerância à glicose e redução da expressão de TNF-α e IL-6 no TAP e no músculo sóleo. Apesar dos efeitos colaterais do T3 na função cardíaca, não foi observado nenhuma alteração na pressão arterial dos animais DM1 tratados com T3. A partir do presente estudo, pode-se concluir que o tratamento com T3 promove melhora da sensibilidade à insulina em ratos DM1 e obesos, mecanismo que envolve a redução da expressão de citocinas inflamatórias no tecido adiposo e muscular esquelético. / Diabetes meliitus (DM) is the endocrinopathy most prevalent around the world. The subclinical inflammation in DM and obesity has important role on insulin resistance development and is caused in consequence of increased inflammatory cells infiltration and expression of inflammatory cytokines in tissues which are essential to glucose homeostasis. Hipo or hiperthyroidism states there is decreased insulin-induced glucose uptake in adipose tissue and skeletal muscle, which reinforces the importance of thyroid function integrity to glycemia control. Lately, several studies have pointed positive relationship between DM and thyroid dysfunctions. In this context, we hypothesis of the present study was that triiodothyronine (T3) could promotes benefitial effects on insulin sensitivity by altering expression of inflammatory cytokines in experimental models of DM or obesity. In order to this hypothesis, type 1 DM - DM1 (alloxan induced) or obese (cafeteria diet induced) rats were treated with T3 during 4-week period. The DM1 rats presented primary hypothyroidism and increased inflammatory cells infiltration and expression of inflammatory tumoral necrosis factor (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) on epididymal adipose tissue (EAT) and soleus skeletal muscle. The treatment with T3 promoted reduction of glycemia, improvement of insulin sensitivity and decrease on expression of TNF-α and IL-6 in EAT and soleus skeletal muscle. The obese rats presented subclinical hyperthyroidism, increased glycemia and reduction of insulin sensitivity. The treatment with T3 in this experimental model promoted increase on insulin sensitivity and glucose tolerance, furthermore, reduction in expression of TNF-α and IL-6 in EAT and soleus skeletal muscle. Even though, side effects of T3 on cardiac function, it was not observed any alteration in arterial pressure of DM1 rats treated with T3. Taken together the results of the present study, it could be conclude that treatment with T3 promotes improvement on insulin sensitivity in DM1 and obese rats, mechanism which involves reduction in expression of inflammatory cytokines on adipose tissue and skeletal muscle.

Tris(1-chloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TCPP) and tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TDCPP) are added to polyurethane foams in a variety of industrial and consumer products to prevent flame ignition. The gradual release of these flame retardants (FRs) from such products leads to contamination of various abiotic and biotic media, including wild birds. Recent studies demonstrated endocrine-disrupting effects of TCPP and TDCPP, including alteration of circulating thyroid hormone (TH) levels. The TH-pathway is essential for normal growth and development in birds. There are limited data on the toxicological effects of TCPP and TDCPP in avian species and, prior to this work, no study has examined their effects in avian embryos. This M.Sc. thesis investigates the developmental, molecular and biochemical effects of TCPP and TDCPP in chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus) embryos via egg injection studies. TCPP delayed pipping at doses ≥9.24 μg/g, both TCPP and TDCPP reduced embryo growth at the highest dose (51.6 μg TCPP/g and 45 μg TDCPP/g), and TDCPP decreased free plasma thyroxine and gallbladder size at 7.64 μg/g and 45 μg/g, respectively. Real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction was used to measure changes in mRNA levels of hepatic genes that were responsive to these FRs in a previous in vitro study. TCPP dysregulated the expression of TH-responsive genes and xenobiotic metabolizing enzymes (cytochrome P450s; CYPs), whereas TDCPP only affected CYPs. Less than 1% of the administered TCPP or TDCPP was detected in egg contents following 19 days of incubation, indicating extensive metabolism of the parent compounds. DNA microarrays were used to perform a global transcriptional analysis on liver samples from embryos that exhibited adverse effects following TDCPP injection. 47 differentially expressed genes were identified at the 45 μg/g dose. Functional analysis revealed that immune function and lipid and steroid metabolism were major targets of TDCPP toxicity and indicated a state of cholestatic liver/biliary fibrosis. Since the TH-pathway is a key regulator of metabolic homeostasis, its disruption early in development is a potential cause of the observed adverse effects. This thesis demonstrates, for the first time, developmental and endocrine-disrupting effects of TCPP and TDCPP in an avian species and attempts to link phenotypic changes to molecular-level disruptions in hopes to improve the understanding of their modes of action.

No description available.

Depression är en neuropsykiatrisk sjukdom och en av de vanligaste folksjukdomarna i världen. Sjukdomen kan återkomma i skov under hela livet. Depression behandlas vanligen med psyko- och farmakoterapi beroende på depressionens svårighetsgrad. Det pågår flera diskussioner inom forskningen som behandlar sambandet mellan hypotyreos och depression, detta är dock väldigt kontroversiellt ämne. Denna diskussion har pågått genom decennier och är ännu inte fullt utredd. Det har även hittats evidens på att hypotalamus-hypofys-tyroidea-axeln (HPT-axeln) är inblandad både vid hypotyreos och depression. Sköldkörtelhormonerna tyroxin och trijodtyronin är två hormoner som har en viktig roll i hjärnans utveckling. HPT-axeln regleras av sköldkörtelhormonen men även av andra viktiga faktorer. Vid brist på sköldkörtelhormonerna kan hypotyreos utvecklas. Behandlingen sker framför allt med syntetiskt levotyroxin men även syntetiskt trijodtyronin kan användas. Pågående forskning tyder även här på att trijod tyronin skulle kunna användas som komplement till personer med behandlingsresistens vid depression men detta är också omdebatterat. Syftet med studien var att undersöka effekten av tyroxin och liotyronin med avseende på den mentala hälsan hos personer med eller utan hypotyreos och depression. Tidigare studier har visat att hormonerna kan förbättra  behandlingsresistent depression samt depressionsrelaterade symtom. Sex vetenskapliga studier från Pubmed som ansågs relevanta för denna litteraturstudie användes. Resultatet av studien tyder på att personer med hypotyreos och depression kan bli hjälpta av syntetiskt tyroxin. Den visade även att supressiva och ersättande doser av syntetiskt tyroxin hos personer utan sköldkörtel, vilket kan likställas med hypotyreos gör att dessa patienter har en sänkt livskvalitet och ett sänkt humör. Personer som enbart lider av unipolär depression och fick liotyronin-komplement mådde generellt sett mycket bättre än innan behandlingen. / Depression is a neuropsychiatric disease and one of the most common diseases in the world. Depression is usually treated with psychotherapy and pharmacotherapy depending on the severity of depression. There are pieces of evidence in recent research studies showing link between hypothyroidism and depression but has not yet been fully investigated. Evidence has also pointed out that the hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroidea (HPT) axis is involved in both hypothyroidism and depression. Thyroid hormones thyroxine and triiodothyronine are the two hormones that play an important role in brain development. The HPT axis is regulated by the thyroid hormone but also by other important factors. In case of lack of thyroid hormone, hypothyroidism can develop. The treatment for hypothyriodism is mainly with synthetic levothyroxine and also with triiodothyronine. Researches suggest that triionthyronine could also be used as a supplement to people with treatment resistant depression and depression related symptoms but requires more research studies. Six scientific studies from Pubmed that were considered relevant were used in this literature work. The aim of the study was to evaluate the effect of thyroxine and liothyronine with respect to mental health of people with or without hypothyroidism and depression. Previous studies have shown that hormones can improve treatment-resistant depression as well as depression-related symptoms. The results of the study suggest that people with hypothyroidism and depression may be helped by synthetic thyroxine. It also showed that suppressive and replacement doses of synthetic thyroxine in people without a thyroid gland (which can be equated with hypothyroidism) cause them to have a lower quality of life and mood. Moreover, people with only unipolar depression who received triiodothyronine supplements generally have shown improvement of depressive symptoms.

No description available.

Thyroid hormones (THs) are essential signaling molecules for the postembryonic development of all vertebrates. THs are capable of initiating a diverse set of developmental programs across multiple tissues. The role of TH in regulating gene expression is well-known, but the initiation of TH signaling is still not fully understood. In amphibians, THs are the sole hormones required for the metamorphosis from tadpole to juvenile froglet. Amphibians are a useful model for studying TH signaling, as they undergo extensive, tissue-specific response programs in response to exogenous TH. The metamorphosis of the American bullfrog, Rana [Lithobates] catesbeiana is temperature sensitive. R. catesbeiana tadpoles do not undergo metamorphosis at cold temperatures (4-5 °C) even in the presence of THs that should otherwise prompt it. However, tadpoles undergo metamorphosis at an accelerated rate when returned to warm temperatures (24-25 °C) forty days after their initial TH exposure. R. catesbeiana tadpoles possess a “molecular memory” of TH exposure which establishes the TH signal at cold temperatures and prompts accelerated metamorphosis after a return to warmer temperatures. The mechanisms of the molecular memory which allow it to uncouple the initiation of TH signaling from the execution of the TH response program are not fully understood. Previous research has established that transcripts encoding transcription factors are a substantial component of the TH-dependent transcriptomic response of cultured tailfin (C-Fin) at cold temperatures. However, not all of these putative transcripts encoding transcription factors required active transcription and translation for their induction, which suggests that the initiation of a TH signal involves mechanisms other than regulating gene expression. Herein, we used quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) and RNA-Sequencing (RNA-Seq) to investigate the TH-dependent transcriptomic response of the back skin, a tissue that undergoes extensive remodeling during metamorphosis. Cultured back skin (C-Skin) was TH-responsive in warm, cold and temperature shift conditions. Forty-four transcripts underwent significant changes in abundance in response to TH in cold temperatures under which the molecular memory is established. Seven of these transcripts encoded putative transcription factors. Surprisingly, the only TH-responsive transcript significantly changed at 4 °C in both the C-Skin and the previously studied C-Fin was thyroid hormone-induced basic leucine zipper-containing protein (thibz). Thibz has been found to be TH-responsive at cold temperatures in the liver, lung, liver, brain, tailfin and back skin of whole animals, which suggests it may be an important regulator of initiating TH signaling. The lack of overlap in the transcriptomic responses of C-Skin and C-Fin may suggest that even the early initiation of TH signaling has tissue-specificity. Alternately, the molecular memory may include mechanisms that do not require active transcription and translation. Transcripts associated with epigenetic modifications and post-transcriptional changes to mRNA stability were also significantly expressed at 4 °C within the C-Skin. Previous investigation of the putative transcription factors in C-Fin revealed that active transcription and translation was not always required for changes in transcript abundance. Multiple mechanisms may be at play in the TH response at different temperatures. In cold temperatures, TH may modulate mRNA stability to influence transcript abundance as a part of initiating TH signaling without executing metamorphosis. Further research is needed to explore potential alternative mechanisms of establishing the molecular memory and the accelerated metamorphic response. The temperature sensitivity of R. catesbeiana’s TH response is incredibly valuable in investigating mechanisms of early TH signaling during postembryonic vertebrate development. / Graduate