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Le travail de thèse présenté dans ce mémoire, est consacré à l'étude des interactions interfaciales entre une espèce active électrochimiquement (l'étain) et une matrice (le borophosphate) capable d'absorber les variations volumiques dues à la formation électrochimique des diverses compositions Li-Sn (« buffer »). L'objectif de cette étude est de comprendre la nature des réactions ayant lieu avec l'introduction du Li dans le matériau composite. Pour cela, nous avons réalisé une étude détaillée d'un composite de référence mis au point dans des études précédentes Sn-0,4 BPO4 ; nous avons évalué l'influence du type de matrice et de la voie de synthèse sur son comportement global. Le matériau composite a pu être décrit comme possédant une interface vitreuse contenant de l'étain oxydé (SnII) qui lui donne la structuration suivante : Elément actif Sn0(1-w)/SnIIwBxPyOz/BPO4 Phase support Interphase. Des études in situ operando complémentaires en diffraction des rayons X et spectrométrie Mößbauer ont permis d'analyser le comportement électrochimique du matériau composite : un premier processus correspond à l'extrusion d'une petite partie d'étain métallique de la zone interfaciale qui augmente la conductivité électronique du composite ; il est suivi par une réorganisation de l'interface avec extrusion de tout le contenu en étain et la formation des premières compositions Li-Sn. Enfin, le cyclage galvanostatique se poursuit grâce à la formation de plusieurs compositions Li-Sn riches en étain (Li2Sn5 et LiSn) et puis enrichies en lithium (Li13Sn5 et Li7Sn2). / The Phd work, presented in this manuscript, is devoted to the study of the interface interactions between an electroactive species (tin) and a matrix (borophosphate). The latter has a buffer role and is thus able to absorb the volume variations taking place during the Li-Sn electrochemical reaction.The aim of this study is to understand the nature of the reactions occurring during lithium introduction in the composite. In order to do that, a detailed study of a previously studied reference composite (Sn-0,4 BPO4) has been undertaken. The effect of some modified matrixes as well as the synthesis route has also been evaluated. The composite material can be described as having a glassy interface containing some oxidized tin (SnII) which leads to the following global structure: Active element Sn0(1-w)/SnIIwBxPyOz/BPO4 Buffering phase Interphase. A complementary in situ operando study (X-ray diffraction and Mößbauer spectroscopy) gave the possibility to analyze the electrochemical behavior of the material. A first process corresponds to a small tin extrusion from the interfacial zone. This contributes to the increase of the electrical conductivity of the composite material which is followed by the interphase reorganization with the extrusion of the whole tin content. Li-Sn reactions take place then, with the galvanostatic cycling going on between the tin rich compositions (Li2Sn5 and LiSn) and the lithium rich ones (Li13Sn5 and Li7Sn2).

A crescente emissão do CO2 para a atmosfera, causada pela matriz energética dependente dos combustíveis fósseis tem gerado a necessidade de sistemas que o utilizem como matéria-prima para a produção ou armazenamento de energia. Em vista disso, este trabalho teve como objetivo o estudo do ciclo de estocagem de hidrogênio baseado em etapas eletrocatalíticas da eletro-redução e eletro-oxidação do par CO2/HCOO-. Para o processo de eletro-redução, foram utilizados eletrocatalisadores suportados em pó de carbono formados à base de estanho (Sn/C) e de estanho modificado com cobalto (Co-Sn/C), cobre (Cu-Sn/C) e paládio (Sn-Pd/C). Os materiais foram sintetizados pelo método de impregnação seguido por tratamento térmico e caracterizados fisicamente por Difratometria de Raios X (DRX) e Espectroscopia por energia Dispersiva de Raios X (EDX). Os testes eletroquímicos foram realizados via cronoamperometria (eletrólise) e a quantificação dos íons formato por Cromatografia Líquida de Alta Eficiência (CLAE) e voltametria cíclica (VC). Os resultados obtidos mostraram que os materiais nanoestruturados sintetizados apresentaram estruturas cristalinas, sendo que o estanho apresentou-se na forma de SnO2, mas sofrendo eletro-redução em condições in situ para SnO ou SnOH. Os resultados eletroquímicos mostraram que o Sn/C eletrocatalisa a redução do CO2 para HCOO-, sendo que a quantificação por VC utilizando eletrodos de paládio e platina indicaram correntes de pico crescentes até o potencial de eletrólise de -1,6 V vs. Ag/AgCl/Cl-. Ademais, experimentos de eletrólise evidenciaram o aumento linear da concentração de HCOO- após 6 horas de polarização, indicando alta estabilidade do eletrocatalisador de Sn/C. A atividade eletrocatalítica dos eletrocatalisadores à base de estanho frente a redução de CO2 para HCOO- foi atribuída a dois aspectos: (i) o estanho favorece a adsorção ou interação do CO2 através dos átomos de oxigênio, possibilitando a transferência de prótons e elétrons sem a quebra da ligação C-O e/ou; (ii) a presença de espécies SnOH na superfície, mesmo em baixos potenciais, permite a interação com o CO2 e leva à formação de intermediários adsorvidos reativos, que sofrem a adição de prótons e elétrons para a formação de HCOO-. A eficiência máxima de corrente faradaica para a formação de HCOO- foi de aproximadamente 7 % tendo a reação de desprendimento de hidrogênio (HER) como rota paralela. A investigação da influência da natureza do eletrocatalisador mostrou inatividade do material de Co-Sn/C, mas com aumento da atividade de Cu-Sn/C para a eletro-redução de CO2, quando comparado com Sn/C puro. / With the increase CO2 emissions into atmosphere caused mainly by the energy dependence on fossil fuels, systems for generation or storage of clean energy has been studied to couple CO2 as feedstock. This work proposed a hydrogen storage cycle based on electrocatalytic steps of pair CO2/HCOO-, such electroreduction and electrooxidation. For electroreduction process were used carbon-supported tin-based electrocatalysts (Sn/C) and tin modified with cobalt (Co-Sn/C), copper (Cu-Sn/C) and palladium (Sn-Pd/C). The materials were synthesized by impregnation method followed of thermal treatment, and X Ray Diffraction (XRD) and Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS) techniques were used for physical characterization. Electrochemical tests were performed via chronoamperometry (electrolysis) and the quantification of formate ions by High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) and cyclic voltammetry (CV). Results of synthesized nanostructured materials showed crystalline structures with tin as SnO2 species, but tin oxide suffering electroreduction to SnO or SnOH in situ conditions. Electrochemical results presented that the Sn/C catalyzes the CO2 reduction to HCOO-, with an increase peak current until electrolysis potential of -1.6 V vs. Ag/AgCl/Cl- quantified by CV on palladium and platinum electrodes. Moreover, electrolysis measurements demonstrated the linear increase of HCOO- concentration after polarization for 6 hours, which indicates the high stability of Sn/C electrocatalyst. The electrocatalytic activity of tin-based electrocatalysts for CO2 reduction into HCOO- was attributed to two aspects: (i) tin favors the adsorption or interaction of CO2 through oxygen atoms, which enables the proton and electron transfer without breaking C-O bond and/or; (ii) the presence on surface of SnOH species allows the interaction with CO2 even at low potential, and leads to the formation of reactive intermediates adsorbed that undergo addition of protons and electrons to form HCOO-. Maximum Faradaic efficiency for HCOO- formation was near 7% with Hydrogen Evolution Reaction (HER) as parallel route. Investigation of the influence of the electrocatalyst nature showed inactivity of CO-Sn/C material, but the activity of CO2 electroreduction increased on Cu-Sn/C material as compared to Sn/C pure.

L'objectif de cette recherche est d’explorer de nouvelles voies dans le domaine de la détection de gaz en ajustant finement la nature chimique, la texture et la morphologie de la couche active pour concevoir de nouveaux capteurs de gaz sélectifs. Ainsi, l’obtention de matériau présentant une haute sélectivité vis-à-vis des gaz constitue un enjeu majeur dans le domaine des capteurs de gaz. Notre approche est basée sur la conception de précurseurs moléculaires uniques - les alcynylorganoétains - qui contiennent toutes les fonctionnalités requises pour obtenir des matériaux hybrides stables par le procédé sol-gel, ces matériaux permettant une détection sélective des gaz nocifs / toxiques. Puis, les propriétés de détection de gaz de ces matériaux ont été comparées à celles de nanoparticules de dioxyde d'étain (SnO2) synthétisées à pression autogène. Une série de matériaux fonctionnels à base d'organooxoétains a été déposé sous forme de films minces films par le procédé d’enduction centrifuge puis ces films ont été caractérisés par des mesures de XRD, FT-IR, RAMAN, AFM, SEM, TEM, sorption d’azote et TGA-DTA. Les études de détection de gaz montrent que l'un des oxydes d'organoétain hybride présente une réponse sélective de détection de gaz tels que le CO, H2, l'éthanol, l'acétone et le NO2, tandis que les nanoparticules SnO2 conduisent à une détection non sélective des m^mes gaz dans les mêmes conditions. Ainsi, la meilleure sélectivité vis-à-vis du CO (à 100 et 200 ppm), de H2 (à 100, 200 et 400 ppm) et de NO2 (à 1, 2, 4 et 8 ppm) a été obtenue à 100 ° C pour le matériau hybride organostannique tandis que ce matériau ne conduisait à aucune réponse avec l’éthanol et l’acétone. Par ailleurs, les films de SnO2 nanoparticulaire sont sensibles à tous les gaz testés à de faibles concentrations (CO: 10 ~ 100 ppm, NO2: 0,5 à 4 ppm, H2: 100 à 800 ppm, acétone: 25 à 200 ppm, éthanol : 10 ~ 100 ppm) sur une plage de température comprise entre 200 et 400 °C. En outre, la sélectivité des matériaux SnO2 vis-à-vis de NO2 (entre 0,5 à 4 ppm) peut être optimisée en contrôlent bien la température de détection. Enfin, les matériaux à base d’organoétains et de dioxyde d’étain présentent une capacité de détection de gaz très élevée à de faibles concentrations en gaz. Ces résultats ont permis de développer une classe de matériaux entièrement nouvelle pour la détection sélective de gaz ainsi offrent la possibilité d'intégrer une fonctionnalité organique dans les oxydes métalliques capables de détecter les gaz. / The ultimate objective of this research is to draw new prospects in the gas sensing field by finely tuning the chemical nature, the texture and the morphology of the active layer to develop new type selective gas sensors. High gas selectivity has been a challenging issue during the past decades in the gas sensing area. Our approach is based on the design of molecular single precursors – alkynylorganotins which contain suitable functionalities required to obtain stable hybrid materials by the sol-gel method exhibiting selective gas detection towards harmful/toxic gases. Their gas sensing properties have been compared with those of tin dioxide (SnO2) nanoparticles synthesized by the hydrothermal route. A series of functional organooxotin-based materials have been processed as films by the spin or drop coating method and characterized by XRD, FT-IR, RAMAN, AFM, SEM, TEM, N2 sorption and TGA-DTA measurements. Gas sensing studies show that one of the hybrid organotin oxides exhibits an outstanding selective gas sensing response towards various gases, such as CO, H2, ethanol, acetone and NO2 whereas SnO2 nanoparticles present non-selective gas sensing ability under the same experimental condition. Thus, the best gas selectivity toward CO (at 100 and 200 ppm), H2 (at 100, 200 and 400 ppm) and NO2 (at 1, 2, 4 and 8 ppm) was achieved at 100 °C for the hybrid organooxotin-based film, however, it showed no response to ethanol/acetone at the same working temperature. On the other hand, the nanoparticulate SnO2 films prepared are sensitive to all the gases tested at low concentrations (CO: 10~100 ppm; NO2: 0.5~4 ppm; H2: 100~800 ppm; acetone: 25~200 ppm; ethanol: 10~100 ppm) in an operating temperature range from 200 to 400 °C. Moreover, the selectivity of SnO2 materials towards NO2 (between 0.5 ~ 4 ppm) can be optimized by well-manipulating the sensing temperatures. Finally, both organooxotin-based and tin oxide-based materials display superior gas sensing ability at low gas concentrations which opens a fully new class of gas sensing materials as well as a new possibility to integrate organic functionality in gas sensing metal oxides.

A crescente emissão do CO2 para a atmosfera, causada pela matriz energética dependente dos combustíveis fósseis tem gerado a necessidade de sistemas que o utilizem como matéria-prima para a produção ou armazenamento de energia. Em vista disso, este trabalho teve como objetivo o estudo do ciclo de estocagem de hidrogênio baseado em etapas eletrocatalíticas da eletro-redução e eletro-oxidação do par CO2/HCOO-. Para o processo de eletro-redução, foram utilizados eletrocatalisadores suportados em pó de carbono formados à base de estanho (Sn/C) e de estanho modificado com cobalto (Co-Sn/C), cobre (Cu-Sn/C) e paládio (Sn-Pd/C). Os materiais foram sintetizados pelo método de impregnação seguido por tratamento térmico e caracterizados fisicamente por Difratometria de Raios X (DRX) e Espectroscopia por energia Dispersiva de Raios X (EDX). Os testes eletroquímicos foram realizados via cronoamperometria (eletrólise) e a quantificação dos íons formato por Cromatografia Líquida de Alta Eficiência (CLAE) e voltametria cíclica (VC). Os resultados obtidos mostraram que os materiais nanoestruturados sintetizados apresentaram estruturas cristalinas, sendo que o estanho apresentou-se na forma de SnO2, mas sofrendo eletro-redução em condições in situ para SnO ou SnOH. Os resultados eletroquímicos mostraram que o Sn/C eletrocatalisa a redução do CO2 para HCOO-, sendo que a quantificação por VC utilizando eletrodos de paládio e platina indicaram correntes de pico crescentes até o potencial de eletrólise de -1,6 V vs. Ag/AgCl/Cl-. Ademais, experimentos de eletrólise evidenciaram o aumento linear da concentração de HCOO- após 6 horas de polarização, indicando alta estabilidade do eletrocatalisador de Sn/C. A atividade eletrocatalítica dos eletrocatalisadores à base de estanho frente a redução de CO2 para HCOO- foi atribuída a dois aspectos: (i) o estanho favorece a adsorção ou interação do CO2 através dos átomos de oxigênio, possibilitando a transferência de prótons e elétrons sem a quebra da ligação C-O e/ou; (ii) a presença de espécies SnOH na superfície, mesmo em baixos potenciais, permite a interação com o CO2 e leva à formação de intermediários adsorvidos reativos, que sofrem a adição de prótons e elétrons para a formação de HCOO-. A eficiência máxima de corrente faradaica para a formação de HCOO- foi de aproximadamente 7 % tendo a reação de desprendimento de hidrogênio (HER) como rota paralela. A investigação da influência da natureza do eletrocatalisador mostrou inatividade do material de Co-Sn/C, mas com aumento da atividade de Cu-Sn/C para a eletro-redução de CO2, quando comparado com Sn/C puro. / With the increase CO2 emissions into atmosphere caused mainly by the energy dependence on fossil fuels, systems for generation or storage of clean energy has been studied to couple CO2 as feedstock. This work proposed a hydrogen storage cycle based on electrocatalytic steps of pair CO2/HCOO-, such electroreduction and electrooxidation. For electroreduction process were used carbon-supported tin-based electrocatalysts (Sn/C) and tin modified with cobalt (Co-Sn/C), copper (Cu-Sn/C) and palladium (Sn-Pd/C). The materials were synthesized by impregnation method followed of thermal treatment, and X Ray Diffraction (XRD) and Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS) techniques were used for physical characterization. Electrochemical tests were performed via chronoamperometry (electrolysis) and the quantification of formate ions by High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) and cyclic voltammetry (CV). Results of synthesized nanostructured materials showed crystalline structures with tin as SnO2 species, but tin oxide suffering electroreduction to SnO or SnOH in situ conditions. Electrochemical results presented that the Sn/C catalyzes the CO2 reduction to HCOO-, with an increase peak current until electrolysis potential of -1.6 V vs. Ag/AgCl/Cl- quantified by CV on palladium and platinum electrodes. Moreover, electrolysis measurements demonstrated the linear increase of HCOO- concentration after polarization for 6 hours, which indicates the high stability of Sn/C electrocatalyst. The electrocatalytic activity of tin-based electrocatalysts for CO2 reduction into HCOO- was attributed to two aspects: (i) tin favors the adsorption or interaction of CO2 through oxygen atoms, which enables the proton and electron transfer without breaking C-O bond and/or; (ii) the presence on surface of SnOH species allows the interaction with CO2 even at low potential, and leads to the formation of reactive intermediates adsorbed that undergo addition of protons and electrons to form HCOO-. Maximum Faradaic efficiency for HCOO- formation was near 7% with Hydrogen Evolution Reaction (HER) as parallel route. Investigation of the influence of the electrocatalyst nature showed inactivity of CO-Sn/C material, but the activity of CO2 electroreduction increased on Cu-Sn/C material as compared to Sn/C pure.

The main challenge of water splitting technology is to develop stable, visible responsive photocatalysts that satisfy the thermodynamic requirements to achieve water redox reactions. This study investigates development of the semiconductors containing metals with s2d10 electronic configuration such as Sn2+ or Bi3+ which shifts the valence band position negatively. Efficient water splitting can, however, be only achieved by understanding the fundamental semiconductor properties of underlying processes. This work elucidates the semiconductor properties through two approaches: the first is to synthesize the materials of various stoichiometry in various forms (powders, thin film etc.) and the second is to perform a combined experimental-theoretical studies to determine the optoelectronic properties of the synthesized materials. The study includes the synthesis and characterization of a series of Bi3+ based semiconductors (Bi2Ti2O7, Bi12TiO20, and Bi4Ti3O12) to resolve inconsistencies in their optoelectronic properties. The crystal parameters and stoichiometry were confirmed by the Rietveld refinement and XRD measurements. These compounds showed a UV responsive absorption, high dielectric constants, and low electron and hole effective masses in one crystallographic reflecting their good charge separation and carrier diffusion properties. The approach showed to be accurate in determining the optoelectronic properties due to good agreement between experimental and theoretical values. The second study investigated the synthesis of SnNb2O6 and using flux assisted method which afforded control over the surface. Increasing the flux to reactant molar ratio resulted in a 2D platelets with anisotropic growth along bc plane as confirmed by XRD and SEM. The photocatalytic activity increased while increasing the flux to reactant ratio exceeding solid state synthesis. This method minimized the oxidation of the surface and formation of grain boundaries and enabled the synthesis of the compound at lower temperature. Next, the optoelectronic properties of α-SnWO4 structure were studied though a combination of experimental and theoretical approach. α-SnWO4 thin films were deposited by RF-sputtering. An interesting low band gap of ~ 1.95 eV was experimentally for direct band gap and 1.7 eV for indirect band gap, high dielectric constants and low electron effective masses in one crystallographic direction were obtained, exhibiting good charge separation and charge carrier transport of the charge carriers. The PEC performance was limited by the oxidation of Sn2+ in the material under applied potential. Finally, pyrochlore SnSb2O6 structure was synthesized utilizing soft hydrothermal method. The crystal structure was studied by Rietveld refinement and the position of Sn2+ was specified. The material showed interesting absorption edge around 700 which is promising for overall water splitting application.

Des matériaux hybrides de classe II ont été préparés à partir de précurseurs bis(tripropynylstannylés). Deux familles de précurseurs sol-gel incluant des espaceurs hydrocarbonés et thiophénique ont été obtenues et conduisent à des matériaux hybrides auto-organisés où les plans d’oxyde sont séparés par les espaceurs organiques. Ainsi l’espaceur rigide a donné lieu à une structure pseudo-lamellaire montrant une bande d’émission monomère avec un assez faible décalage vers le rouge par rapport à l'émission des précurseurs en solution. En revanche, alors que les xérogels thiényle plus désordonnés conduisent à une large émission caractéristique de la formation d’excimères ou de dimères. Par ailleurs, des films minces contenant les espaceurs alkylène et arylalkylène ont été préparés et ont montré une morphologie "pseudoparticulaire" poreuse et un ordre à courte distance contenant des réseaux SnOx. De façon inattendue, ces films minces hybrides détectent le dihydrogène dès une température de 50 °C dans la gamme 200-10000 ppm. A partir de ces films hybrides minces, le dioxyde d'étain cristallin (SnO2) a été préparé par un post-traitement thermique. Comme prévu, ces films SnO2 cassitérite détectent le dihydrogène et, dans une moindre mesure le monoxyde de carbone avec une température optimale de fonctionnement comprise entre 300 et 350 °C. / Class II hybrid materials were prepared from ditin hexaalkynides. Two families of precursors, including either hydrocarbon or oligothiophene-based spacers, were obtained and led by the sol-gel process to self-assembled organotin-based hybrid materials made of planes of oxide separated by organic bridges. Thus, the rigid thienyl spacer gave rise to a “pseudo-lamellar” structure that showed a monomer emission band with a rather small red-shift compared with to the emission of the precursor in solution. However more disordered thienyl xerogels led to broad emission features assigned to excimer or dimer formation. Moreover, thin films containing alkylene- and arylalkylene bridged have been prepared and showed a “pseudoparticulate” porous morphology and a short-range hierarchical order in the organic-inorganic SnOx pseudoparticles. Unexpectedly these hybrid thin films detect hydrogen gas at a temperature as low as 50 °C at the 200-10000 ppm level. From these hybrid thin films, crystalline tin dioxide (SnO2) were prepared by a thermal post-treatment. As expected, cassiterite SnO2 films detected H2 and to a less extent CO with a best operating temperature comprised between 300 and 350 °C.