Cultural clusters with an agglomeration of heritage and historic assets represent national or local history, culture and tradition. Hence, they often become distinctive urban tourism resources supplying multifunctional places for tourists to visit and enjoy. However, the designation of a cultural district by government is not merely a strategy for the preservation of cultural assets and tourism development because a variety of stakeholders, with divergent goals and objectives, are usually involved in the process of converting cultural resources into marketable products. The number of tourists to Insadong, a representative traditional cultural district in Seoul, Korea, has increased rapidly in the last decades with many issues and problems. Insadong is a place where Koreans and foreigners alike experience Korean tradition and it is a unique area where the atmosphere combines both the historical and modern in the centre of the city. The area is also multi-functional, offering a mix of history, entertainment, cuisine, shopping etc. for a mixed clientele. This area has a long history as a cultural business district which was organically generated, but numerous issues and changes have occurred in relation to the commercial development and policy of government. Since this area gained fame as a tourism destination after it was designated as a cultural district, it also encountered problems like rising rental fees, change of space use, modifications in the items for sale, and destruction of small traditional art-related shops, which created the traditional atmosphere. This study examined the policies of the public sector and the role of the private sector in the development of Insadong through examining the government’s assessment and perspectives, the NGO’s perspectives and the entrepreneurs’ situation and expectations for business. Through analyzing crucial events, NGO’s activity, and the initiation of government policies, my research reveals dramatic change under the impact of tourism and government policies, as well as recent problems that have occurred at the cultural district. This study also examined aspects of heritage tourism in an evolving culture cluster in a major city. To the author’s knowledge, this type of research has not been undertaken previously in Korea and is rare in Asia. However, it is difficult to generalize from a case study. Thus, there is a need to undertake similar studies elsewhere to determine if what has been observed in Insadong is unique or if it is an example of a phenomenon that can be observed in other places.

Saudi Arabia is the world's leading oil producer and exporter. The economy in the country is almost totally dependent on oil. Tourism is one of the sectors which received more attention in the last few years after the establishment of the High Commission for Tourism and Antiques in 2000. The Commission's main purpose is to develop, promote and enhance the tourism sector, particularly the domestic tourism sector, to be one of the important sectors in economy. The main purpose of this research is to identify motivations and values for Saudi citizens to travel domestically and to measure their satisfaction on the services they are provided with when they travel within the country. Maslow's Motives Modal (1998) and Rokeach Value Survey (1973) are applied in the study. Motivations are examined by understanding the 'push' and 'pull' factors and these concepts have been used in many studies. The idea behind these concepts is that people travel because they are pushed by their own internal forces and pulled by external forces of the destination attributes. The study was conducted in the city of Medina and Jeddah in Saudi Arabia and 140 questionnaires were obtained, 77 in Medina and 63 in Jeddah. Respondents were selected using a convenience sample through a snowball technique among females and families and a convenience and purposive sample among males at places such as coffee shops and restaurants. Obtained data were analyzed using SPSS. The findings indicated that there are eight push motivations for Saudi domestic tourists including (Relaxation, Spirituality, Family, Cultural, Activity, Knowledge, Loyalty and Economic) and five pull factors including (Religious, Safety, Entertainment, Luxury and Local culture). The study showed that the push factor of Relaxation and the pull factor of Religion are the most important factors as perceived by Saudis. It was also revealed that Saudi domestic tourists have high level of satisfaction on the services they are provided with when they travel domestically. The study suggested further research to be carried out across the Muslim and Arab world in order to explore more travel motivations and values dimensions for people in this region.

This study employs tourism model as research framework to examine the of tourism development in Penghu. The study involves three objectives. The first objective is to assess the influence of the external environment (including political, economical, natural, technological, social, and culture aspect) on the tourism development of Penghu. The second objective is to discuss the government policies that facilitate the tourism development of Penghu and tourism investment with gaming industry from foreign countries. Due to the controversial nature of gaming industry, this study examines both its positive and negative impact for developing appropriate gaming managerial policy. The third objective is to develop Penghu¡¦s tourism marketing strategies by integrating related tourism services, activities and destinations for enhancing the tourism quality of Penghu. The integration will support Penghu to develop marketing strategies for proper utilize the tourism resources of Penghu. In order to achieve the above objectives, the study uses tourism model and focus group which includes tourism related government officials, public representatives, civil groups, tourism practitioners and scholars in Penghu to analyze the external environment, government¡¦s tourism policy and Penghu¡¦s tourism marketing strategies. The result of the study can be the references for the tourism development of Penghu. The findings of the study are as following: (1) political, economical, natural, technological, social, and culture external environment all possess strong influence to the tourism development of Penghu. Therefore, government officials and tourism practitioners should consider the influence of external environment for making tourism policies or marketing strategies. (2) Central government should coordinate with local government for effectively making and implementing tourism policy. (3) Tourism management and marketing strategy are critical to the success of tourism development of Penghu. The integration of tourism related services, activities and destinations can effectively utilize Penghu¡¦s tourism resources. At last, based on external environment, government policies, and tourism industry, this study develops expected tourism policies and marketing strategies for enhancing the tourism development of Penghu.

Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2008. / Full text also available online. Scroll down for electronic link.

Tourism development has been advocated for as a means by which to stimulate regional economic development in developing countries by international development agencies and governments seeking to transition from agricultural to industrial economies. First viewed as a purely private sector activity, tourism development planning was ad hoc or reactive to the demands of a quickly growing and highly dynamic industry. The externalities and negative impacts of rapid development and poor planning were quickly recognizable in small economies; high economic leakages, cultural encroachment, environmental degradation. When planning processes were undertaken, methodologies were derived from those of developed countries, proving not to be the most appropriate approaches to tourism development in lesser developed economies where administrative and structural capacities are weak or non-existent. Planning objectives also were heavily focused on physical requirements and financial outputs, all derived from identified market segments. Sustainable tourism development evolved from the recognition that the industry is dependant upon natural and cultural resources which must be preserved. Planning processes focus more on the capacity of these underlying resources, as opposed to simply meeting market demands for products and services. The integration of these resources as tourism amenities is furthermore thought to be crucial to sustaining the value of the tourism product. Nonetheless, sustainable tourism development planning is no better defined than its traditional counterpart. Implementation of planning processes, both traditional and sustainable, are challenging, especially in developing countries. This report seeks to identify fundamental differences in traditional versus sustaining planning processes for tourism in regards to vision, goals, objectives, strategies and performance indicators. The goals and objectives of sustainable tourism development are evaluated against national developmental indicators for socio-cultural, environmental and economic outcomes. A case study example is undertaken of the mass tourism destination La Romana-Bayahibe, Dominican Republic where, through the local private sector hotel association, the Interamerican Development Bank is funding the development of a “Sustainable Tourism Development Model”. An evaluation of the established goals and objectives is undertaken with the aim of identifying rational performance indicators for evaluation of the project’s impact. / text

Governments and donor agencies are increasingly advocating tourism as a viable poverty reduction option in developing countries. However, the debate surrounding tourism development mechanisms and benefits to local people is based upon limited empirical evidence. Much of the literature has focused on the socio-economic impacts of tourism in developing countries, but there is comparatively limited investment of the relationship between tourism and poverty reduction from the perspectives of the stakeholders, particularly local people. To build knowledge about this relationship, this research study examines the role of tourism in poverty reduction in Elmina, Ghana. The core aim of the research is to analyse the inter-relationship between poverty reduction and tourism from the perspective of local people and stakeholders. The research focuses upon the importance of tourism as a developmental strategy to tackle poverty. The research methodology was formulated within an interpretive paradigm utilising qualitative techniques to investigate tourism and poverty in Elmina. Stakeholders who participated in the study included: Government; Donor Agencies; Local People; Tourists; and the Private Sector. The data was analysed using thematic data analysis methods. Researcher reflexivity is also integrated into the study in view of the researcher’s experience of employment in a public sector tourism organisation in Ghana. The thematic findings contribute to knowledge about the relationship between tourism and poverty reduction in Elmina and are categorised into three main themes. Firstly, local people in Elmina define and understand poverty and tourism opportunities in multiple ways, which differ from other stakeholders; however, differences in meanings and understandings exist between and within individuals and groups in Elmina. The attributes accounting for the differences in views include: level of education; access to the tourism market; participation in decision-making; and type of businesses. Secondly, local people participate in tourism mainly as owners of informal tourism businesses and employees. ii However, a group of marginalised people, the ‘Castle Boys’, also benefit from the support received from philanthropic tourists through the activities of begging and informal tour guiding as ways of earning income to escape from poverty. Finally, several barriers to participation for local people in tourism exist in the Elmina community, which marginalises and excludes a cross-section of the locals from the advantages of socio-economic opportunities. These barriers include: a low level of education attainment; a lack of availability of and access to credit facilities; and a lack of ‘voice’ in the decision-making process, indicating a general need for capacity building. Government and donor agencies’ neoliberal policy objectives of utilising cultural tourism for development has failed to achieve poverty reduction in Elmina. This issue has given rise to evolving questions of the use of tourism as a developmental tool to reduce poverty and how to empower local people to actively participate in emerging socio-economic opportunities. This research subsequently contributes to furthering the understanding of the role of tourism in poverty reduction, and theoretically comprehending the role of tourism as a development strategy to combat poverty in local communities.

Destination image is an aspect of tourism that requires crisis management (CM) and marketing, because it is vulnerable to crises and media coverage. The literature review identified that potential terrorist attacks and political instability were particularly influential in changing travellers' intentions to visit and perceptions of different destinations. To date, there is no published academic research on the changing images of Indonesia as a result of the prolonged 1997 crises (pre the Bali bombings) and the 2002 and 2005 crises (post the Bali bombings). This study addresses this by examining Indonesia's images from the perspectives of the Indonesian tourist industry and UK residents. This study also addresses gaps identified in the following destination image research areas: image formation, image change and crisis management. The review of current literature revealed that there has been little shift towards a greater use of qualitative or mixed-methods approach for the study of destination image. This research uses a mixed-methods approach to address the limitations that the use of a single, purely quantitative or quantitative approach would impose. Results from the primary research reveal that the images of Indonesia, including the security image is more positive among visitors than non-visitors. The research results suggest that Bali has strong unique images and these have allowed its tourism to continue and survive pre- and post- the crisis period. Furthermore, the results revealed that Indonesia's image has become more complex since 1997, specific factors affected its image during crisis, the critical role of the media in the development of image and tourism demand and why certain crisis management strategies proposed in the tourism literature are not effective. This research contributes to the study of image dimensions, differences, change and formation factors and the use of mixed-methods within a crisis context. The research also contributes within the area of crisis management by suggesting modifications to the current crisis management framework, making it more adaptable in certain contexts and suggests the need for 'knowledge management' and a 'logical incrementalism' approach when developing the CM plan. The implication of the research findings is that mixed-methods approach is compatible and beneficial in destination image research with similar or complementary research objectives.

Over recent decades, China has opened up to the wider world in a myriad of ways. By 2020 – a decade hence – it will be transformed from its scarcely-visited-1980s self, to become the most visited nation on earth. It is therefore important to gauge how China is being represented through the immensely-powerful signifying practices of tourism. Predicated on the view that reciprocal understanding between China (or ‘the East’) has never been high with ‘the West’, this critico-interpretive study explores how China is symbolized / projected via the meditative agency of tourism – that is, by a collaborative projective Leviathan, which predominantly authorizes via longstanding eurocentric visions. Industrially-scripted representations of tourism are inspected regarding their normalizing (Foucauldian) capacity to naturalise certain visions of China’s inheritances and drawcards whilst unrecognizing / denying others. Underpinned by the multiple-truth-cognisance of social constructivism (especially that of Lincoln and Cuba), this emergent study is based upon Kincheloean bricoleurship. Initially seeking to crystallize found representational repertoires of / about ‘China’ by the use of multiple methods, it becomes – following difficulties in finding decision-takers who were both China-aware and active in such acts of signification (who could be both interviewed and work-shadowed) – an inquiry rescaffolded as a multiple-data-set exploration of worldmaking discursivity. The investigation makes critical use of Nyiri’s recent examination of the Chinese government’s ortholalia (i.e., its cultural authority) in regulating what China is and how it should be staged / performed / projected, and of various newspress articles on the late soft power articulation of both the nation’s forty-centuries of ‘brilliant history’ and its ‘sudden modern vitality’. The inquiry progresses by condemning the general and ubiquitous inadequacy of the twin fields of Tourism Management / Tourism Studies to school either practitioners or researchers as Confucian-style organic intellectuals, able to comprehend the international economic foundations of tourism, yet also appreciate its deep cultural, political, and psychic rhizomata. It culminates in the development of an ‘organic intellectual’ research agenda (after Venn), signposted to direct immediate but longrun inspection of these Foucauldian / Confucian acts of the ongoing (?) normalized or compossible (cogenerative) worlding of China.

This research study examines the role and significance of ethnic identity upon tourism participation within the Pakistani community. The aim of the research is to analyse the inter-relationship between a Pakistani ethnic identity and participation in tourism of a Pakistani diaspora (Luton, United Kingdom). The research concentrates upon the importance of the return visit to the ancestral homeland of Pakistan and the impact of this visit upon the formation of identity. This thesis argues that a Pakistani ethnic identity is a significant force in shaping the tourism mobilities, behaviours and experiences of first and second-generation Pakistanis. The research enquiry uses a qualitative methodological approach to investigate the tourism journeys of the Pakistani community. Interpretive ethnography is chosen to interpret the understandings and meanings of tourism to the Pakistani diaspora researched in this study. Researcher reflexivity is also included to examine the impact of the research process on the personal and professional identity of a Pakistani fieldworker investigating a community she considers as her 'own'. The interpretive ethnographic findings illustrate a close association exists between tourism and ethnic identity amongst the Pakistani diaspora. The research findings show understandings of tourism in the Pakistani community are predominately based upon journeys to the ancestral homeland. The three main motivations for retuming to Pakistan are for purposes of reunification, diasporic networking and preservation of a Pakistani ethnic identity. Migration is a key factor influencing post-migration tourism mobilities of the Pakistani diaspora to Pakistan. The tourism journey to Pakistan is held as being fundamental for the confirmation of a Pakistani ethnic identity and establishing a collective sense of 'Pakistaniness' with the local and global Pakistani diaspora. The research findings indicate several barriers to travel exist in the Pakistani community, which restrict the tourism mobilities of the Pakistanis to tourism places other than the ancestral homeland. The research study concludes that across all generations the meanings of tourism, motivations to travel, the importance of the history of migration and the impact of the return visit bring to the forefront matters of identity and belonging. These issues give rise to evolving questions of identity in terms of what it is to be a Pakistani and a British Pakistani in Pakistan and Britain, which subsequently affect attitudes to travel, tourism experiences and patterns of behaviour. The research contributes to furthering the understanding of the role of tourism in diasporic and ethnic communities, theoretically comprehending the role of tourism as an actor in identity formation and developing methodological practice for analysing the relationship between tourism and identity. Suggestions for future research are proposed to investigate the tourism mobilities of the Pakistani diaspora in Britain and in other global diasporic communities.

This research investigates volunteer tourists’ motivations and on-site experiences, alongside hosts’ attitudes towards volunteer tourists at the Home and Life orphanage in Phang Nga province, Thailand. An interpretive paradigm utilising qualitative data collection methods (semi-structured interviews, a focus group, participant observation and diaries) was adopted. The informants included twenty-four volunteer tourists, on a working vacation at the Home and Life orphanage between 1stJuly and 30th September 2011, and twenty hosts from Thai Muang subdistrict. The findings of the research suggest that the volunteer tourists’ motivations and on-site experiences are multidimensional. Five main themes of motivations have been identified: (i) to help the children who were affected by the 2004 Boxing Day tsunami; (ii) to gain personal development and growth; (iii) to gain new experiences; (iv) to learn about/be immersed in local culture; and (v) to meet and make friends. Amongst these, a desire to help the children was the most dominant motivational factor, which was strongly influenced the 2004 Boxing Day tsunami. In terms of the volunteer tourists’ on-site experiences, four experiential dimensions were found: (i) personal development and growth; (ii) social; (iii) cultural; and (iv) feeling. The study suggests that the children had played a significant role in making the volunteer tourists’ experience a beneficial one because they were an important source for cultural learning and their lives had taught a number of things to the volunteer tourists. This research also investigates hosts’ attitudes towards the volunteer tourists. It was found that they had very positive attitudes towards the volunteer tourists, based upon two main factors: the volunteer tourists’ conduct and performance; and the perceived benefits they gained from the work of these tourists. The opportunity for the children to study English with English native speakers was cited as the most significant benefit. However, the hosts also had concerns about some aspects of the volunteer tourists’ behaviour and perceived underperformance, which were found to be mainly the result of cultural differences. Additionally, interactions and relationships between volunteer tourists and hosts were also examined by using social exchange theory. The study suggests that the interactions were reciprocal, and that both the volunteer tourists and the hosts enjoyed satisfactory benefits from one another: the volunteer tourist had a desired experience, and the hosts gained benefits from the work of the volunteer tourists.