DNA methylation is a major form of epigenetic modification and involves the addition of a methyl group covalently to the 5-position of the cytosine pyrimidine ring, mostly within the context of CpG dinucleotides in vertebrate somatic cells. Methylation of CpG dinucleotides at promoter regions is generally associated with transcriptional repression. In this context, the methyl-CpG binding proteins (MeCPs) that are capable of recognition of methylated CpG dinucleotides are proposed to play a central role in DNA methylation associated transcriptional repression. Methyl-CpG binding domain protein 4 (MBD4) is an MeCP that possesses a glycosylase domain at its C-terminal, which can excise and repair both G:T and G:U mutations derived from DNA deamination at CpG dinucleotides, in addition to its Nterminal MBD binding domain. MBD4 has been associated with a number of pathways including DNA repair, apoptosis, transcriptional repression, and possibly DNA demethylation processes. However, the precise contribution of MBD4 to these processes remains unclear. To explore the functional repertoire of MBD4 I decided to undertake multiple protein interaction studies to identify potential partner proteins. I performed yeast 2-hybrid screens with an 11.5 day mouse embryonic cDNA library and multiple mass spectrometry of immunoprecipitates of tagged versions of MBD4 that were over-expressed in human cell lines. I detected ~380 potential interacting candidates with these assays. A significant number of candidates were detected in both assay systems. Chosen candidates were further validated by reciprocal co-IP of expressed partners and by immunofluorescence (IF) microscopy to determine their potential co-localisation in mouse and human cell lines. Subsequently, I identified the intervening domain of MBD4 as a novel protein interaction region for tested candidates. My analysis suggests that MBD4 can have a role in regulation of post-replication methyl-error repair/methylation machinery through its direct interaction with DNMT1 (previously shown), UHRF1 (novel) and USP7 (novel), as well as possible cross-talk to histone modification and chromatin remodelling pathways, through partners such as PRMT5 and ACF1. Interestingly the transcription regulatory components KAP1 and CFP1 not only interact with but also dramatically influence the stability of exogenously expressed MBD4 in human cells. In general positive validation by IP and IF demonstrates the robustness of the initial screens, and implies that MBD4 may impact upon several transcriptional and epigenetic networks along with a number of nuclear pathways that include transcriptional repression, DNA repair and RNA processing. To test for transcriptional aberration in the absence of Mbd4 function I profiled two independent mouse cell lines that lack MBD4 activity using Illumina MouseWG-6 v2.0 Expression BeadChip arrays. A number of genes were identified that are significantly up- or down- regulated in both Mbd4-/- MEFs. This included mis-expression of insulin-like growth factor-binding proteins and two paternally imprinted genes Dio3 and H19. The cohort of genes that were mis-expressed in the Mbd4-/- MEFs overlap with genes that responsed to tamoxifen exposure in an ER-positive ZR-75-1 xenograft model. In response to this observation I identified a potential interaction between MBD4 and estrogen receptor α (ERα) by co-IP and IF co-localisation. This suggests that MBD4 might potentiate transcription of estrogen regulated genes via a direct interaction with ERα, supporting a possible link between replication repair remodelling and steroid/thyroid hormone receptor transcriptional regulation. Additionally I performed a pathway analysis by which several developmental genes including Sox9, Klf2 and Klf4, were prioritised as possible MBD4 targets. On this basis I propose a role for MBD4 in acquired diseases such as cancers and autoimmune diseases via transcriptional regulation. I also performed a comparison of MBD4 DNA binding activity with MBD4 homologues from the Medaka fish (Oryzias latipes) and the amphibian, Xenopus laevis. I could show that DNA binding specificity to a series of methylated and mismatched probes is conserved regardless of the poor sequence conservation of the MBD domain of MBD4 between the species. I conclude that MBD4 is integrated in multiple pathways in the nucleus that includes DNA repair, chromatin remodelling, transcriptional regulation and genome stability.

Diabetes mellitus affects nearly 300 million people in the world. The development of diabetes is caused by dysfunction or by reduction of insulin-producing β-cells that are part of the endocrine pancreas. Therefore, the most critical step for understanding the pathophysiology of diabetes and for restoring lost β cells is the identification of molecular cues that specify the cellular phenotype in the pancreas. This work is based on the hypothesis that the transcription factor NEUROD1 is a key factor for the development of the pancreas and for the maintenance of endocrine tissue function. Neurod1 conditional KO mutants (Neurod1CKO) were generated using the Cre-loxP system by crossing floxed Neurod1 mice with Isl1-Cre line. Immunohistochemical analyses of the pancreas at embryonic day 17.5 and postnatal day 0 showed that the deletion of Neurod1 negatively affected the development, organization of endocrine tissue, and total mass of pancreatic endocrine cells. To better understand molecular changes, quantitative PCR was used to analyse mRNA expression in the developing pancreas at the age of embryonic day 14.5 and postnatal day 1. Genes important for the development and function of the pancreas have been selected for the study of expression changes. These analyses showed changes in expression of genes...

Nesta dissertação consideramos um o modelo para um gene como sendo um sistema de dois estados, tipo spin, e apresentamos um modelo estocástico para a expressão gênica. As soluções estacionárias e, também, as dependentes do tempo, para o processo de transcrição, são obtidas e as distribuições de probabilidade, que descrevem o estado funcional do gene, são calculadas analiticamente. O valor médio e o ruído transcricional na população de mRNA são analisados. O efeito do ruído transcricional na síntese proteica é contemplado acoplando-se os processo de transcrição e tradução. / In this dissertation we present a two state stochastic model, spin-like, for gene expression. The steady-state solutions and also the time-dependente solutions for the transcription are probed and the probability distribution functions, which describe the functional state of the gene, are exactly calculated. The mean value and the transcriptional noise in the mRNA population are analyzed. The effects of the transcriptional noise in the protein synthesis are contemplated by coupling the transcription and the translation.

The human proteom diversity is caused by the ability of a single gene locus to encode more protein isoforms. The TCF/LEF genes produce a broad spectrum of protein variants, which consequently leads to a great functional diversity of the TCF/LEF proteins. The TCF/LEF transcriptional factors regulate the canonical Wnt signaling target genes. In this diploma project we focused on the Caenorhabditis elegans gene pop-1, the ortholog of the TCF/LEF genes. Using the Northern blot analysis we tried to identify alternative isoforms of the pop-1 mRNA in C. elegans. Using quantitative RT-PCR we also analyzed the pop-1 mRNA levels. Key words: canonical Wnt signaling pathway, TCF/LEF transcription factors, Caenorhabditis elegans, pop-1

La famille des protéines IMPs (IGF2 mRNA binding proteins) compte trois membres IMP1, 2 et 3. Les IMPs participent au développement embryonnaire. IMP1 et IMP3 sont considérées comme des protéines oncofoetales. En effet, malgré leur faible expression dans les tissus adultes, elles se retrouvent fortement surexprimées dans des cellules tumorales. Malgré la forte homologie entre les membres de la famille, les IMPs présentent des différences fonctionnelles qui restent très mal comprises jusqu’à présent. De nombreuses études montrent que la protéine IMP3 est très abondante dans de nombreux cancers tels que les carcinomes utérin, rénal, pulmonaire, les hépatocarcinomes et les rhabdomyosarcomes. Ces dernières années, IMP3 est devenu un marqueur de mauvais pronostique pour les patients atteins de cancer. Au cours de ma thèse j’ai principalement travaillé sur une lignée cellulaire de rhabdomyosarcomes (RMS). Les RMS sont des tumeurs principalement pédiatriques mais qui peuvent survenir à tout âge. En outre, la moitié des patients atteints des RMS meurent dans l'année suivant leur rechute et 90% des patients meurent dans les cinq ans suivant leur rechute. De nouvelles approches thérapeutiques sont absolument nécessaires. Mon sujet de thèse consiste à comprendre par quels mécanismes moléculaires les IMPs participent au processus oncogénique des RMS embryonnaires (eRMS). Pour cela, je me suis intéressée à la régulation des cyclines par les IMPs. Dans le cadre de mon projet, j’ai étudié l’effet des IMPs sur trois cyclines différentes : D1, D3 et G1. J’ai montré qu’IMP3, à la différence des deux autres, est capable de contrôler l’expression des cyclines D1, D3 et G1 dans les eRMS, ainsi que dans huit autres lignées de cancer humain différentes. Cette régulation a également des effets sur le cycle cellulaire des eRMS, expliquant l’importance d’IMP3 dans les cancers. Par diverses approches biochimiques, j’ai démontré que, sur les trois IMPs, seule IMP3 est très enrichie dans le noyau des eRMS, dans lequel elle forme des complexes avec les ARNm des CCND1, D3 et G1. Les différents résultats obtenus suggèrent un modèle selon lequel ces interactions au sein du noyau semblent indispensables à la régulation de la traduction des trois cyclines en protégeant leurs ARNm du complexe de silencing RISC (RNA induced silencing complex) et constituent donc la clé du mécanisme par lequel IMP3 contrôle la prolifération des cellules cancéreuses. / RNA-binding proteins of the IMP family (IGF2 mRNA-binding proteins 1-3) are key post-transcriptional regulatory factors of gene expression. They are known to control cell motility, adhesion, and proliferation. In our previous work, we show that all three IMP proteins can directly bind the mRNAs of cyclins D1, D3, and G1 (CCND1, D3, and G1) in vitro. Nevertheless, only IMP-3 regulates their expression in a significant manner in vivo, thus controlling proliferation of a number of human cancer cell lines. Importantly, the nuclear localization of IMP-3 is essential for the post-transcriptional regulation of the expression of CCND1, CCND3, and CCNG1 (CCNs). To elucidate the molecular mechanisms of IMP-3- specific regulation, we have identified its protein partners in human embryonic rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) cells. We now show that in the nucleus and in the cytoplasm, IMP-3 interacts with a number or RNA-binding nucleocytoplasmic proteins, including DHX9, PTBP1, NF90, NF110, HNRNPA1, HNRNPA2/B1 and HuR. These IMP-3 partners have a dramatic impact on the protein levels of the cyclins. Interestingly, the decrease of CCNs protein synthesis in IMP-3 depleted cells can be fully reversed by down-regulating the key proteins of RNAi machinery, such as AGO2 and GW182. These findings suggest that IMP-3- dependent RNP complexes pre-assembled in the nucleus can protect their target mRNAs from cytoplasmic RNAi-dependent repression in human cancer cells.

Nesta tese desenvolvemos um modelo estocástico para a transcrição do gene even-skipped de Drosophila melanogaster no qual a variável estocástica é o número de moléculas de mRNA transcritas. Nesse modelo, consideramos um gene com dois níveis de ativação sendo regulado externamente. As probabilidades de se encontrar o gene ligado ou desligado e com determinado número de moléculas de mRNA transcritas obedecem equações lineares dadas por processos markovianos de nascimento-e-morte (taxas de produção e degradação) e termos de chaveamento entre os níveis cujas dependências temporais são dadas por funções de Heaviside. Notamos que tal dependência é suficiente para garantir uma atividade transcricional inicial intensa seguida de uma súbita interrupção, conforme sugerem os dados experimentais. Desconsiderando efeitos difusivos e fenômenos de transporte, estendemos esse constructo às outras regiões do embrião, permitindo dependências espaciais apenas às termos de chaveamento, e o resultado gerado descreve os dados experimentais com boa concordância, indicando também que o aspecto binário do gene é suficiente para uma descrição semiquantitativa do fenômeno. Notavelmente, na região onde a listra se forma e concomitantemente a sua formação, o modelo prevê a redução do desvio quadrático (flutuação) e do ruído. Calculando a distribuição de probabilidade, verificamos que o regime estacionário é atingido antes da listra começar a desaparecer. Também estudamos uma conexão entre parâmetros do modelo e as proteínas envolvidas na regulação e, baseado em resultados da literatura, obtemos uma função com aproximadamente o mesmo efeito regulatório considerando gradientes de seis fatores de transcrição (Bcd, Hb, Gt, Kr, Kni e Tll) e apenas quatro sítios de ligação, o que sugere que a informação transcricional pode estar concentrada na regulação de poucos sítios. / In this thesis we develop a stochastic model to transcription of Drosophila melanogaster even-skipped gene in which the stochastic variable is the number of mRNA molecules transcribed. In this model we considered a gene with two activation levels being regulated externally. The probabilities of gene being on or off when there is a certain number of transcripts obey linear equations given by Markovian birth-and-death processes (production and degradation rates) and terms of switch between levels whose time-dependence is given by Heaviside functions. We note that is sufficient to ensure a strong transcriptional activity followed by a sudden disruption, as suggested by the experimental data. Disregarding diffusion effects and transport phenomena, we extend this construct to the others regions ot the embryo, allowing space-dependence only to terms of switch, and the results describe the experimental data with good agreement, indicating also that binary character of gene is sufficient to a semiquantitative description of the phenomenon. Notably, in the region where the stripe 2 is formed and simultaneously with its formation, the model predicts the reduction in standard deviation (fluctuation) and noise. By calculating the probability distribution, we find that stationary state is reached before stripe 2 starts to fade. We also study a connection between the parameters of the model and proteins involved in regulation and, based on results from the literature, we obtain a function with approximately the same regulatory effect considering six transcription factors (Bcd, Hb, Gt, Kr, Kni e Tll) and only four binding sites, suggesting that transcriptional information may be concentrated in regulation of few sites.

Les récepteurs nucléaires régulent l’expression des gènes importants pour le développement et l’homéostasie des cellules eucaryotes. Si certains d’entre eux sont activés par la liaison d’un ligand naturel, d’autres, comme le récepteur ERR, sont orphelins et ne possèdent pas de ligand naturel connu à ce jour. ERR se lie via son domaine DBD sur un élément de réponse ERRE au niveau des régions promotrices des gènes et son activité peut être modulée par la liaison de ligands synthétiques antagonistes. Par une approche de biologie structurale intégrative combinant biochimie, biophysique et cristallographie aux rayons-X, mon travail de thèse consistait en l’étude de l’organisation structurale d’ERR pour comprendre les mécanismes d’antagonisme induits par le ligand agoniste inverse XCT-790, et la topologie qu’il adopte en interagissant avec l’ADN. Mon projet était axé sur l’étude des domaines modulaires DBD et LBD en complexe avec ADN et ligand transposée à l’étude fonctionnelle du récepteur entier. Par un important travail biochimique, j’ai mis en place les protocoles de purification de ces protéines et caractérisé biophysiquement la stabilité et la stœchiométrie des complexes avec ADN et ligand. J’ai mis en évidence que le ligand XCT-790 se lie sur chacun des monomères de LBD avec une forte affinité et que le DBD interagit avec un ERRE sous la forme d’un monomère. De multiples essais de cristallisation ont abouti à l’obtention de cristaux pour les complexes avec le LBD et le DBD ayant diffracté respectivement jusqu’à 3,5 Å et 7 Å de résolution sans néanmoins pouvoir en déterminer les structures. L’ensemble de ces résultats permettent de conclure que le DBD est monomérique sur les ERRE et IR3 et semble être dimérique sur l’élément de réponse combiné ERRE/ERE. La topologie qu’adopte ERR sur l’ADN est dictée par la liaison de ligand et serait la conséquence d’une communication allostérique entre les domaines modulaires. Ces connaissances acquises faciliteront la détermination structurale d’ERR entier par cristallographie aux rayons-X ou par cryo-microscopie électronique. / Nuclear receptors regulate expression of important genes involved in development and homeostasis in eukaryotic cells. While some of them are regulated by the binding of a natural ligand, others, like ERR, are orphan and don’t have any natural ligand identified up to now. ERR binds to ERRE response elements through its DBD on promoter regions of genes and its activity can be modulated by the binding of synthetic antagonist ligands. By an integrative structural biology approach, my thesis work consisted in the study of the structural organization of ERR to understand the antagonism mechanisms induced by the inverse agonist XCT-790, and the adopted topology upon binding to DNA. My project focused on the study of the modular domains DBD and LBD complexes with DNA and ligand and extended to the functional study of the whole receptor. Thanks to significant biochemical work, I set up the purification protocols for these proteins and characterized by biophysics the stability and stoichiometry of the DNA and ligand complexes. This work revealed that XCT-790 binds on each LBD monomer with high affinity and that the DBD interacts to an ERRE as a monomer. Many crystallization trials led to crystals for the LBD and DBD complexes that diffracted respectively up to 3.5 Å and 7 Å of resolution but no structure could be determined. These results allow to conclude that the DBD is monomeric on the ERRE and IR3 and appears to be dimeric on the combined response element ERRE/ERE. The topology adopted by ERR on DNA is guided by the ligand binding and might be the consequence for an allosteric communication between the modular domains. These results provide the basis for a future structure determination of the full ERR by X-ray crystallography and cryo electron microscopy.

Transcriptional enhancers represent the primary basis for differential gene expression. These elements regulate cell type specificity, development, and evolution, with many human diseases resulting from altered enhancer activity. To date, a key gap in our knowledge is how enhancers select specific promoters for activation. To fill this gap, in this thesis, I first developed an Integrated Method for Predicting Enhancer Targets (IM-PET). Leveraging abundant “omics” data, I devised and characterized multiple genomic features for distinguishing true enhancer-promoter (EP) pairs from non-interacting pairs. I integrated these features into a probabilistic predictor for EP interactions. Multiple validation experiments demonstrated a significant improvement over extent state-of-the-art approaches. Systematic analyses of EP interactions across twelve human cell types reveals global features of EP interactions. Second, we used a well-established viral infection model to map the dynamic changes of enhancers and super-enhancers during the CD8+ T cell responses. Our analysis illustrated the complexity and dynamics of the underlying EP interactome during cell differentiation. Taking advantage of the predicted EP interactions, we constructed stage-specific transcriptional regulatory networks, which is critical for understanding the regulatory mechanism during CD8+ T cell differentiation. Third, recent progress in mapping technologies for chromatin interactions has led to a rapid increase in this type of interaction data. However, there is a lack of a comprehensive depository for chromatin interactions identified by all major technologies. To address this problem, we have developed the 4DGenome database through comprehensive literature curation of experimentally derived interactions. We envision a wide range of investigations will benefit from this carefully curated database.

ABSTRACT A multitude of complex cellular changes are required throughout development in order for a single cell to transform into a fully functioning organism. Cellular events including proliferation, migration, and differentiation have to be carefully controlled in order for development to proceed correctly. In order to study such dynamic processes, in vivo models are often utilized. Using the zebrafish (Danio rerio) as a model system, we have investigated the role of an axon guidance signaling pair, Semaphorin6A (Sema6A) and PlexinA2 (PlxnA2), in neurodevelopment. A previous investigation into the developmental expression patterns of sema6A and plxnA2 in zebrafish, revealed overlapping expression in the developing eye. At this early stage, the cells in the optic vesicles are undifferentiated retinal precursor cells (RPCs) and therefore do not require Sema/Plxn signaling for their canonical axon guidance role. To understand what the function of this early expression was, we knocked down both sema6a and plxna2 and observed 1) a loss of cohesion of RPCs within optic vesicles, and 2) a decrease in RPC proliferation (Ebert et al., 2014). Because these phenotypes were seen at an early stage and given that many developmental processes are dependent on genetic regulation, we hypothesized that Sema6A/PlxnA2 signaling could be regulating transcription of downstream target genes. To investigate this, we performed a microarray experiment and uncovered 58 differentially regulated genes (Emerson et al., 2017a). Prior to our study, it was not known that Sema/Plxn signaling led to changes in gene transcription. In an effort to understand the contribution of identified candidate genes to early sema6A/plxnA2 knockdown phenotypes, candidate genes with predicted functions in proliferation and migration were investigated. First, we show that rasl11b is important for regulation of RPC proliferation in the developing optic vesicles. Second, we show that shootin-1 is important in optic vesicle migration, retinal pigmented epithelium formation and optic tract patterning. Furthermore, PlxnA2 regulation of shootin-1 levels is important in sensory and motor axon patterning and branching in the peripheral nervous system. Belonging to a large family of proteins with the ability to cross talk, Semas and Plxns rely on spatially and temporally differential expression patterns to perform their tissue-specific roles. Here, we used in situ hybridization to comprehensively uncover the neuronal expression patterns of the PlxnA family in the early developing zebrafish (Emerson et al., 2017b). In addition, we present for the first time that zebrafish have two genes for PlxnA1, A1a and A1b, which show divergent expression patterns. Semas and Plxns are critical for many aspects of development and together, this body of work provides further insight into the downstream signaling mechanisms and roles of these essential developmental signaling proteins.

Transcription of the Pseudomonas aeruginosa type III secretion system is controlled by ExsA, a member of the AraC/XylS family of regulators. ExsA is comprised of an amino terminal domain that is involved in self-association and regulatory functions, and a carboxy-terminal domain that contains two helix-turn helix (HTH) DNA-binding motifs which contact promoter DNA. Previous work from our lab determined the function of the two independent ExsA domains and found that each ExsA-dependent promoter contains two adjacent binding sites for monomeric ExsA. The promoter-proximal site (binding site 1) consists of highly conserved GnC and TGnnA sequences that are individually recognized by the two HTH DNA-binding motifs of an ExsA monomer. Nevertheless, the details of how ExsA recognizes and binds to ExsA-dependent promoters were still unknown. In chapter II I show that the two ExsA monomers bind to promoter regions in a head-to-tail orientation and identify residues in the first HTH of ExsA that contact the GnC sequence. Likewise, residues located in the second HTH motif, which contribute to the recognition of the TGnnA sequence, were also identified. While the GnC and TGnnA sequences are important for binding to site 1, the promoter-distal binding sites (site 2) lack obvious similarity among themselves or with binding site 1. Site 2 in the PexsC promoter region contains a GnC sequence that is functionally equivalent to the GnC in site 1 and recognized by the first HTH motif of an ExsA monomer and the second HTH interacts with an adenine residue in binding site 2. A comparison of hybrid promoters composed of binding site 2 from one promoter fused to binding site 1 derived from another promoter indicates that ExsA-binding affinity, promoter strength, and the degree of promoter bending are properties that are largely determined by binding site 2. Through the course of the ExsA studies I observed that the amino acids that comprise the HTH motifs of ExsA are nearly identical to those in LcrF/VirF, the activators of T3SS gene expression in the pathogenic yersiniae. In chapter III I tested the hypothesis that ExsA/LcrF/VirF recognize a common nucleotide sequence. Here I report that Yersinia pestis LcrF binds to and activates transcription of ExsA-dependent promoters in P. aeruginosa, and that plasmid expressed ExsA complements a Y. pestis lcrF mutant for T3SS gene expression. Mutations that disrupt the ExsA consensus-binding sites in both P. aeruginosa and Y. pestis T3SS promoters prevent activation by ExsA and LcrF. All of the data combined demonstrate that ExsA and LcrF recognize a common nucleotide sequence. Nevertheless, the DNA binding properties of ExsA and LcrF are distinct. Whereas two ExsA monomers are sequentially recruited to the promoter region, LcrF binds to promoter DNA as a preformed dimer and has a higher capacity to bend DNA. An LcrF mutant defective for dimerization bound promoter DNA with properties similar to ExsA. Finally, I demonstrate that the activators of T3SS gene expression from Photorhabdus luminescens, Aeromonas hydrophila, and Vibrio parahaemolyticus are also sensitive to mutations that disrupt the ExsA-consensus binding site. Taken together, this work shows that ExsA binding and activation at T3SS gene promoters serves as a model system by which the DNA binding properties of other AraC family transcriptional activators can be predicted.