Passive components like resistors, capacitors and inductors are used in every electronic system. These are the very basic components which affect the system performance at higher frequencies and it is necessary to understand and model the behavior of these components in a very accurate manner. This work focuses on utilizing Printed Circuit Board (PCB) test boards, or fixtures, made of FR4 for characterizing Surface Mount Device (SMD) components. Agilent's Advanced Design System (ADS) microwave circuit simulation software was used for designing the microstrip transmission lines as well as for generating the layout for manufacturing of the PCB. SMD resistors, capacitors and inductors were soldered into the fixture and then measured using the Vector Network Analyzer (VNA). The calibration kit was developed in ADS. The measured data were calibrated using the TRL (Thru-Reflect-Line) calibration algorithm. A calibration kit consisting of through, three transmission lines of various lengths, open and short was designed and manufactured. Calibration procedures were performed using Cascade Microtech's WinCal XE software. Based on our experience, TRL calibration did not perform to its full potential due to errors in the value of the characteristic impedance of microstrip transmission line. This impedance is ideally assumed to be 50 Ohm, but our lines had characteristic impedance of around 49 Ohm. Simple models for the resistors and capacitors were developed by our collaborators at the University of Zagreb and we developed the model for the inductors. We used ADS for simulations and comparison with the measured data. Extensive optimization of these models was done so as to fit the measured and modeled data. As the frequency goes above 4 GHz models and measurements don't match due to the limitations of the PCB material, the increasing effects of the parasitics and calibration artifacts. This work shows how and when we can use inexpensive FR4 PCB for the characterization of the passive SMD components in the low GHz frequency range. It also examines the range of operating frequency of SMD components, verifies the parameters extracted from the simple model and tests the TRL calibration algorithm.

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These days more renewable energy sources are beingintegrated into the power system, while nuclear power and otherconventional energy sources are being demounted. This comeswith some obstacles, e.g. the renewable energy sources do nothave the same ability to produce reactive power as conventionalenergy sources do. The purpose of this study is to investigate howthe voltage in a power grid would behave with only renewableenergy sources as generators. A fictive power grid was madeto represent a real power grid based in the region of Dalarna,Sweden. Maintain a stable voltage by only using wind andhydropower was the goal of the study, but also to have an self-sufficient grid that does not have to import power from nearbyregions. By using numerical analysis in Matlab with real data,the grid was simulated. The result was that the fictive grid wasnot able to be entirely self-sufficient as it had to import powerfrom nearby regions. In the constructed grid the voltage neverdeviated more than 1 % from the nominal voltage. In conclusion,the study fulfilled all the goals other than making it independent. / Dessa dagar integreras fler förnybara energikällor i elnätet medan kärnkraft och andra konventionella energikällor demonteras. Detta kommer med några hinder, t.ex att de förnybara energikällorna inte har samma förmåga att producera reaktiv effekt som de konventionella energikällorna kan. Syftet med denna studie är att undersöka hur spänningen i ett elnät skulle uppföra sig med endast förnybara energikällor som generatorer. Ett fiktivt elnät skapades för att representera ett verkligt nät baserat i en region i Dalarna, Sverige. Att ha en stabil spänning genom att bara använda vind- och vattenkraft var studiens syfte, men också att nätet skulle vara självförsörjande och inte behöva importera effekt från grannområdena. Genom att använda numerisk analys i Matlab med verkliga värden simulerades nätet. Resultatet var att det fiktiva nätet inte kunde vara helt oberoende eftersom det var tvunget att importera effekt från de närliggande regionerna. Spänningarna i det konstruerade nätet avvek aldrig mer än 1 % från den nominella spänningen. Sammanfattningsvis uppfyllde nätet alla mål förutom att göra det självförsörjande. / Kandidatexjobb i elektroteknik 2020, KTH, Stockholm

Europe requires significant transmission grid expansions to foster the integration of electricity markets, enhance security of supply and integrate renewable energies. However, next to lengthy authorization processes, transmission system operators (TSOs) in Europe are currently facing extreme public opposition in their transmission line projects leading to significant project delays. These delays imply significant additional costs for TSOs as well as society as a whole and put the transformation of the European energy system at risk. Existing scientific literature currently lacks comprehensive studies that have tried to identify generalizable success factors to overcome public opposition in transmission line projects. The goal of work at hand was to close this research gap. Potential success factors were collected through extensive literature review and interviews throughout Europe with respective stakeholders such as citizen action groups, NGOs or energy experts. Experiences from analogue large infrastructure projects like wind parks, carbon capture and storage facilities, hydro dams, nuclear waste repositories, etc. were also used to form hypotheses. The findings were transformed into a structural equation model and tested through a questionnaire answered by almost all European TSOs. Results revealed that people’s trust in the TSO is of utmost importance for less public opposition. It can be regarded as the critical success factor per se. TSOs can create trust through stakeholder participation, sufficient communication, proper organizational readiness and liaison with stakeholders. Furthermore, appropriate technical planning can help to reduce public opposition in transmission line projects. In total 18 concrete and actionable success factors were identified for TSO management to facilitate the establishment of these aforementioned aspects. They will help European TSOs to reduce public opposition and thus accelerate the implementation of new transmission lines. Interestingly, economic benefits for people did not turn out to be a Significant success factor in reducing their opposition against new transmission lines.

Wearable technology has attracted global attention in the last decade and the market is experiencing an unprecedented growth. Wearable devices are designed to be low-profile, light-weight and integrated seamlessly into daily life. Comfort is one of the most important requirements for wearable devices. Fabric based antennas are soft, flexible and can be integrated into clothing. State of the art textile manufacturing techniques such as embroidery, combined with advanced conductive textile materials can be used to fabricate flexible fabric based on-body antennas. In this thesis, the feasibility of using computerised embroidery in the fabrication of wearable, flexible yet functional fabric based antennas have been examined. The fabric based antennas are embroidered using conductive threads. The most suitable materials for fabricating embroidered antennas have been identified. The embroidered fabric based antenna systems including transmission lines and low-profile detachable connectors have been fabricated and their RF performances have been tested. The optimal manufacturing parameters related to embroidery such as stitch direction, spacing and length have been examined. The repeatability of embroidered antennas, cost estimation, and complexity of manufacturing process have been clearly presented. The results can be used to inform and provide guidelines for the development of representative products that can be mass manufactured. A new simulation approach has been introduced to analyse the anisotropic properties of embroidered conductive threads. Simulations and measurements indicate that the performances of embroidered antennas are affected by the anisotropic surface current due to the embroidered stitches. Exploiting the current direction, a novel non-uniform meshed patch antenna has been designed. Representative results show that the non-uniform meshed structure can significantly reduce more than 75% of the usage of conductive materials for the microstrip antennas with negligible effect on the antenna performance.

Ces travaux de thèse portent sur la détection de défauts d'isolement dans des lignes de transmission de grandes longueurs. Il s'agit de détecter des défauts non francs liés à l'isolant entre les conducteurs d'un câble de grande longueur qui sont représentés par le paramètre de conductance de fuite. Détecter ces défauts, signes d'un possible futur court-circuit, est un enjeu important mais nécessite une méthode non invasive. Par exemple, dans le cas des câbles de signalisation SNCF, il s'agit de développer une méthode de diagnostic de très faibles conductances de fuite dans les câbles de signalisation le long des voies ferrées compatible avec la circulation des trains. Il faut savoir estimer, à partir de mesures en un seul point du câble, de fortes résistances distribuées sur plusieurs centaines de mètres sans perturber la bande de fréquences du continu à 40 kHz, réservée aux signaux de service. En effet, les câbles de signalisation de la SNCF qui nous intéressent ont une longueur moyenne de 1500 m et sont utilisés dans la bande de fréquence 0-40 kHz. Nous proposons donc une méthode fréquentielle permettant d'estimer de faibles défauts à moyenne fréquence dans des lignes de transmission uniformes avec pertes. Elle repose sur deux idées principales : une analyse fine des effets conjoints de la dissipation et de la dispersion et une méthode de comparaison de deux lignes ayant les mêmes caractéristiques et ne différant que du paramètre de conductance de fuite. Cette méthode de comparaison a été généralisée dans le cas de lignes multiconducteurs en adoptant une démarche statistique.\\Cette thèse a apporté de nouveaux résultats : des formules d'estimation de pertes découlant de l'analyse fine d'une part des effets conjoints de la dissipation et de la dispersion et d'autre part de la méthode de comparaison de deux lignes. Des simulations numériques ont été faites dans les deux cas afin de valider la méthode fréquentielle proposée. Des expériences ont été réalisées afin de valider l'analyse statistique développée dans le cas de lignes multiconducteurs. / This thesis work focuses on the detection of insulation faults in very long transmission lines. This is detecting soft defects related to the insulation between the conductors of a long cable which are represented by the leakage conductance parameter. Detect these faults, signs of a possible future short-circuit, is an important issue but requires a noninvasive method. For example, in the case of railway signaling cables, it is to develop a method of diagnosis of very low leakage conductances in signaling cables along railways compatible with the movement of trains. Be aware estimate from measurements in one point of the cable, strong resistance distributed over several hundred meters without disturbing the continuous frequency range to 40 kHz, reserved for service signals. Indeed, the signal cables from the train that interest us have an average length 1500 m and are used in the frequency band 0-40 kHz.We propose so a frequency method for estimating low defects to medium frequency in uniform transmission lines with losses. It is based on two main ideas : a detailed analysis of joint effects of dissipation and dispersion and a method of comparing two lines having the same characteristics and differing only leak conductance parameter. This method of comparison was widespread in the case of multiconductor lines by adopting a statistical approach.This thesis has brought new results : losses estimation formulas resulting from the detailed analysis of a share of joint effects of dissipation and dispersion and also the method of comparing two lines. Numerical simulations were made in both cases to validate the proposed frequency method. Experiments were performed to validate the statistical analysis in the case of multiconductor lines.

Orientador: Sérgio Kurokawa / Banca: Afonso José do Prado / Banca: Lourenço Matias / Resumo: O presente trabalho descreve detalhadamente uma metodologia alternativa para o cálculo dos parâmetros longitudinais e transversais de um condutor múltiplo genérico, com base na configuração de um condutor equivalente. A metodologia proposta considera precisamente o acoplamento mútuo entre os subcondutores que compões o feixe, a natureza distribuída dos parâmetros e a distribuição da corrente, uniforme ou desigual, através dos subcondutores. São calculados e analisados os parâmetros utilizando a metodologia alternativa proposta e o procedimento clássico baseado na obtenção de um condutor equivalente aplicando o conceito do Raio Médio Geométrico (RMG), para diversos condutores múltiplos, sendo eles simétricos ou não simétricos, convencionais ou não-convencionais. Posteriormente, são comparados os resultados obtidos por ambos os métodos e a partir desses é possível comprovar a eficácia da metodologia proposta e eventuais situações em que a metodologia clássica, envolvendo o conceito do RMG, apresenta algumas imprecisões derivadas da distribuição não uniforme da corrente em condutores múltiplos assimétricos ou pouco convencionais / Abstract: The present work describes an alternative methodology to evaluate the longitudinal and transversal parameters of a generic bundled conductor, based on the configuration of an equivalent conductor. The proposed methodology considers precisely the mutual coupling among subconductors of the bundle, the distributed nature of parameters and the current distribution through subconductors. The parameters are calculated and analyzed using the proposed alternative methodology and the classic procedure, based on equivalent conductor applying the concept of Geometric Mean Radius (GMR), for several bundled conductors, symmetric or nonsymmetric, conventional or non-conventional. Subsequently, the obtained results are compared to both methods and then it is possible to verify the efficacy of the proposed methodology and eventual situations where the classic methodology, based on RMG concept, presents inaccuracies due to the non-uniform distribution of the current in non-symmetric or non-conventional bundled conductors / Mestre

Le développement d’aéronefs « plus » voire « tout » électriques a pour conséquence la conception d’architectures électriques embarquées de plus en plus complexes entraînant une très nette augmentation du nombre de câbles électriques à déployer au sein des véhicules. Parmi les contraintes rencontrées lors des phases de définition et d’intégration des réseaux de câblages, les aspects de compatibilité électromagnétique et de gestion des échauffements thermiques deviennent de plus en plus critiques. Ainsi, ces travaux de thèse sont dédiés au développement d’une méthodologie permettant la prédiction d’une part, des courants induits par et sur les réseaux de câblages et d’autre part, de leur niveaux d’échauffement. En particulier, l’analyse bibliographique effectuée à cette occasion montre que les phénomènes électrostatiques (à la base de la théorie des lignes de transmission) et de conduction stationnaire de la chaleur sont strictement analogues, ce qui autorise une résolution simultanée de ces deux problèmes pour les réseaux de câblages considérés. Les présents travaux démontrent que le calcul des paramètres électriques primaires (p.u.l) du réseau et de la distribution de température dans le plan transverse peut se faire de manière totalement couplé à l’aide d’un schéma numérique basé sur la Méthode des Moments(MoM). Le choix de l’utilisation des équations intégrales pour la résolution de ce problème de potentiel se fonde sur plusieurs avantages tels qu’une utilisation optimisée des ressources de calcul et l’utilisation d’algorithmes efficaces de résolution, de surcroît naturellement parallélisables pour de futurs développements. Les outils de calculs thermiques développés dans le cadre de cette thèse, et qui ont vocation à être intégrés dans la suite logicielle CRIPTE de l’ONERA, ont fait l’objet d’une validation expérimentale pour plusieurs configurations de harnais électriques. Les comparaisons simulations-mesures présentent de bons accords bien que les expérimentations menées aient montré la difficulté d’obtenir précisément des valeurs du coefficient d’échange thermique,même dans des conditions parfaitement maîtrisées. Les travaux ouvrent enfin des perspectives nouvelles sur l’optimisation en terme de masse des réseaux de câblage (EWIS). / The on-going development of “more” or “all” electrical aircraft leads to the design of ever-complex embeddedelectrical networks, which causes a significant increase of electrical cables to be used within these innovativevehicles. Among the constraints encountered during the definition and integration phases of the network, thoserelated to the electromagnetic compatibility between equipment as well as the management of thermal heatingby Joule’s effect become more and more stringent. Thus, this thesis is dedicated to the development of anoriginal methodology enabling the prediction of both induced and crosstalk currents as well as the heating upstate in complex bundles of cables. Indeed, literature review explicitly shows that electrostatic and stationaryheat transfer phenomena are, from a mathematical standpoint, strictly the same which allows the simultaneouscomputation of these two problems for an arbitrary network. This research work demonstrates that the determinationof primary electrical parameters (per unit length) and the temperature distribution within a givencross-section can be handled with the numerical Method Of Moment (MoM). This choice is motivated by theseveral inherent advantages of the method like an optimized use of the computer resource and the naturalparallelization of the algorithms. The developed numerical tools, intended to be fully integrated in the in-housesoftware suite CRIPTE, has been validated during an experimental campaign that has involved several typesof bundles. Although the comparisons between experimental and simulated results comply with each other,experiments reveal the hard task of getting a precise estimation of the heat transfer coefficients, even in awell-controlled environment. Finally, these works open new and very promising perspectives for future EWIS(Electrical Wiring Interconnection System) in term of mass optimization.

This thesis is a combination of the development of numerical models regarding transient simulation of transmission lines and their advantages associated with fault location methods. The transmission line models presented in this work are in time-domain, which is a new approach considering traditional methods as being the phasor and traveling wave techniques. The use of phasors for this purpose has some technical difficulties: the presence of a damped DC component, greater influence of the fault impedance and metrological equipment layout. This work deals with single-phase AC and mono polar DC transmission lines. The proposed transmission line model has three main differentials compared to the traditional Bergeron model: full distribution of linear resistance; full distribution of leakage conductance; and just one recurrence of historical values. The first point is critical for evaluation of the exponential component of transient short circuit currents. The second point refers to the inclusion of the corona effect in the transmission line modeling. The single recurrence indicated in the third topic is given by the complete resolution of the telegrapher\'s equations, so there is no need of serial composition to improve waveform accuracy. The principle of fault location method is calculating the absolute difference between fault voltages seen by the transmission line ends. This technique guarantees a lower influence of the fault impedance and its electrical parameters. / Esta dissertação é uma combinação do desenvolvimento de modelos numéricos para simulação de transitórios eletromagnéticos em linhas de transmissão e suas benesses associadas à localização de faltas. Os modelos de linha de transmissão aqui apresentados estão no domínio do tempo, o que descaracteriza a abordagem tradicional de localização de faltas como técnicas fasoriais e ondas viajantes. A utilização de fasores para esse propósito admite algumas dificuldades técnicas: presença da componente DC amortecida, maior influência da impedância de falta e disposição dos equipamentos metrológicos. Abordam-se linhas de transmissão de sistemas alternado monofásico e contínuo monopolar. A modelagem proposta possui três principais diferenciais frente ao modelo de Bergeron: plena distribuição da resistência linear; plena distribuição da condutância transversal; e apenas uma recorrência a valores históricos. O primeiro ponto é fundamental para avaliação da componente exponencialmente amortecida das correntes transitórias de curto circuito. O segundo ponto se refere à inclusão do efeito corona no modelamento. A recorrência unitária apontada no terceiro tópico apresenta a vantagem de não ser necessária a composição em série do modelo para aprimorar a qualidade das formas de onda. O princípio de localização de faltas se dá pelo cálculo da diferença absoluta entre as tensões instantâneas de falta vistas pelos terminais da linha. Essa técnica garante uma menor influência de impedância de falta e dos parâmetros elétricos.

Proteger as linhas de transmissão é uma das tarefas mais importantes dentro dos sistemas elétricos de potência. Faltas em linhas de transmissão devem ser localizadas precisamente e extintas o mais rápido possível. Para tal, o esquema de proteção de linhas utiliza valores amostrados de correntes e tensões para a execução das tarefas de detecção, classificação e localização da falta. Neste esquema, grandezas trifásicas de corrente (IA, IB, IC) e tensão (VA, VB, VC) compõem as entradas do sistema. Após a detecção e classificação da falta, o relé efetua o cálculo da impedância aparente para a verificação da zona de proteção na qual a falta se insere (localização). Dentro deste contexto, a rápida detecção e a correta classificação da falta são passos fundamentais para a lógica de controle de um relé. Para a utilização de sistemas de proteção com alta velocidade de operação, o conjunto detector + classificador deve realizar uma decisão precisa do tipo de falta envolvida em menos de 10 ms após a ocorrência desta. Alguns métodos convencionais têm lidado com este problema, porém os tempos para estimação do tipo de falta são algumas vezes excessivamente longos. Este trabalho apresenta um novo sistema que provê uma rápida e confiável detecção e classificação de faltas através das medidas de valores de correntes trifásicas. O novo método utiliza-se da teoria de Redes Neurais Artificiais, baseada em dois diferentes tipos de redes (MLP e RBF), para a tarefa de detecção e classificação de faltas nos níveis de tempo requeridos para um moderno sistema de proteção. Um estudo comparativo em relação ao desempenho das redes mencionadas também foi realizado. Os testes efetuados para as redes dos tipos MLP e RBF mostraram que o sistema proposto foi capaz de detectar e classificar corretamente 100% dos casos estudados. Deve ainda ser ressaltado, que na maior parte dos casos (93% para a rede MLP e 84% para a rede RBF), o processo de detecção e classificação foi completado com no máximo 5 amostras de pós-falta (5ms). Isto demonstra a rapidez na tarefa de detecção e classificação embutida no método proposto, principalmente levando-se em consideração os tempos apresentados pelos métodos convencionais. / Transmission line protection is one of the major tasks for a power system. Transmission line faults must be located accurately and isolated as fast as possible. In order to perform this task, the power system protection system uses the three-phase currents (IA, IB, IC) and voltages (VA, VB, VC) to detect, classify and locate the fault. After detecting and classifying the fault, the relay calculates the apparent impedance to verify in which protection zone the fault is located. Taking this into account, precise and fast detection and classification methods are fundamental steps for the relay control algorithm. The combination detection + classification must carry out the correct response in less than 10 ms after the fault for a high-speed protection system. Some conventional methods have treated this problem but the time for a correct classification is sometimes excessively long. This work presents a fast and reliable new system for fault detection and classification using the three-phase current measurements. This new system is based on Artificial Neural Networks (RBF and MLP) for the detection and classification tasks. A comparative study involving both types of neural networks was done. Tests showed that the proposed system was able to correctly detect and classify 100% of the studied cases where the majority (93% of the cases for MLP net and 84% for RBF net) of them was done in up to 5 post-fault samples (5 ms). The afore-mentioned demonstrates the high speed of the new method for the detection and classification tasks when compared to the conventional ones.