Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a heritable and highly debilitating condition with antidepressants, first-line treatment, demonstrating low to modest response rates. No current biological mechanism substantially explains MDD but both neurostructural and neurochemical pathways have been suggested. Further explication of these may aid in identifying subgroups of MDD that are better defined by their aetiology. Specifically, genetic stratification provides an array of tools to do this, including the intermediate phenotype approach which was applied in this thesis. This thesis explores genetic overlap with regional brain volume and MDD and the genetic and non-genetic components of antidepressant response. The first study utilised the most recent published data from ENIGMA (Enhancing Neuroimaging Genetics through Meta-analysis) Consortium's genome-wide association study (GWAS) of regional brain volume to examine shared genetic architecture between seven subcortical brain volumes and intracranial volume (ICV) and MDD. This was explored using linkage disequilibrium score regression (LDSC), polygenic risk scoring (PRS) techniques, Mendelian randomisation (MR) analysis and BUHMBOX (Breaking Up Heterogeneous Mixture Based On Cross-locus correlations). Results indicated that hippocampal volume was positively genetically correlated with MDD (rg= 0.46, P= 0.02), although this did not survive multiple comparison testing. Additionally, there was evidence for genetic subgrouping in Generation Scotland: Scottish Family Health Study (GS:SFHS) MDD cases (P=0.00281), however, this was not replicated in two other independent samples. This study does not support a shared architecture for regional brain volumes and MDD, however, provided some evidence that hippocampal volume and MDD may share genetic architecture in a subgroup of individuals, albeit the genetic correlation did not survive multiple testing correction and genetic subgroup heterogeneity was not replicated. To explore antidepressant treatment resistance, the second study utilised prescription data in (GS:SFHS) to define a measure of (a) treatment resistance (TR) and (b) stages of resistance (SR) by inferring antidepressant switching as non-response. GWAS were conducted separately for TR in GS:SFHS and the GENDEP (Genome-based Therapeutic Drugs for Depression) study and then meta-analysed (meta-analysis n=4,213, cases=358). For SR, a GWAS on GS:SFHS only was performed (n=3,452). Additionally, gene-set enrichment, polygenic risk scoring (PRS) and genetic correlation analysis were conducted. No significant locus, gene or gene-set was associated with TR or SR, however power analysis indicated that this analysis was underpowered. Pedigree-based correlations identified genetic overlap with psychological distress, schizotypy and mood disorder traits. Finally, the role of neuroticism, psychological resilience and coping styles in antidepressant resistance was investigated. Univariate, moderation and mediation models were applied using logistic regression and structural equation modelling techniques. In univariate models, neuroticism and emotion-orientated coping demonstrated significant negative association with antidepressant resistance, whereas resilience, task-orientated and avoidance-orientated coping demonstrated significant positive association. No moderation of the association between neuroticism and TR was detected and no mediating effect of coping styles was found. However, resilience was found to partially mediate the association between neuroticism and TR. Whilst the first study does not indicate a genetic overlap between regional brain volumes and MDD, it demonstrates the utility of the intermediate approach in complex disease. Antidepressant resistance was associated with neuroticism both genetically and phenotypically, indicating its role as an intermediate phenotype. Nonetheless, larger sample sizes are needed to adequately address the components of antidepressant resistance. Further work in antidepressant non-response may help to identify biological mechanisms responsible in MDD pathology and help stratify individuals into more tractable groups.

La leucémie myéloïde chronique (LMC) est un syndrome myéloprolifératif rare traité par des inhibiteurs de tyrosine kinase, tel que l’imatinib. Malgré son efficacité, la résistance au traitement est un problème récurrent. Des variants génétiques responsables d’une altération de la mort cellulaire programmée (apoptose) pourraient notamment expliquer l’hétérogénéité de la réponse au traitement entre les patients. Dans un premier temps, l’objectif était de rechercher des variants candidats. Pour cela un panel de 45 gènes impliqués dans l’apoptose a été étudié par séquençage nouvelle génération chez 24 patients atteints de LMC, 12 répondeurs et 12 résistants au traitement par imatinib. A l’aide d’outils informatiques, 473 polymorphismes ont été détectés. Le nombre de patients étudiés étant limité, de nouvelles méthodes statistiques ont dû être développées pour analyser les résultats obtenus. Tout d’abord, les fréquences de survenue des variants chez les patients résistants et répondeurs ont été comparées aux fréquences observées dans la population générale et visualisées par une approche de statistiques descriptives. Cette stratégie a permis de réduire la liste à 95 polymorphismes pouvant être impliqués dans la résistance au traitement. Par la suite, les gènes ont été classés selon leur enrichissement en allèles variants. Au final, trois gènes candidats ont été choisis et séquencés chez 103 patients. Cette méthodologie, automatisée grâce à un algorithme informatique, a permis de mettre en évidence, un variant non synonyme dans le gène BCL RAMBO, retrouvé plus fréquemment chez les patients résistants de manière significative. Dans un second temps, l’objectif était de caractériser le rôle de ce variant dans la réponse à l’imatinib à l’aide de lignées cellulaires modifiées par la technologie CRISPR-Cas9. Des cellules n’exprimant plus la protéine ont été obtenues et ont permis de mettre en évidence le rôle majeur de la protéine BCL RAMBO dans l’inhibition de l’apoptose. Des lignées cellulaires portant le variant candidat ont également été créées à l’aide d’une nouvelle technique utilisant CRISPR-Cas9 : l’exon entier contenant le nucléotide d’intérêt a été remplacé par un exon modifié. La modification d’un acide aminé induite par le variant a été associé à une perte de la sensibilité au traitement par imatinib dans ces lignées, comme suggéré après séquençage des patients. Ces données indiquent que BCL-RAMBO, facteur anti-apoptotique dans une lignée modèle de LMC, pourrait devenir une nouvelle cible thérapeutique afin de surmonter la résistance à l’imatinib / Chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) is a rare myeloproliferative syndrome treated by tyrosine kinase inhibitors, such as imatinib. Despite its efficacy, resistance to treatment is a persistent clinical issue. Notably, genetic variants causing alterations in apoptosis may explain heterogeneity of imatinib sensitivity between patients. First, the goal was to look for candidate variants. For that purpose, a panel of 45 apoptotic genes was assessed by next-generation sequencing on 24 CML patients, 12 sensitive and 12 resistant to imatinib treatment. Using informatics tools, 473 polymorphisms were detected. As the number of sequenced samples was limited, novel statistical methods had to be developed to interpret the results. The variant frequency in resistant and sensitive patients was compared to variant frequency in the general population and visualized using descriptive statistics. This strategy allowed to obtain a restricted list of 95 polymorphisms that might be involved in resistance to the treatment. Then, genes were ranked according to variant allele enrichment. At the end, three candidate genes were chosen and sequenced for 103 CML patients. This methodology, automated using a computer algorithm, permitted to highlight a nonsynonymous variant in the BCL RAMBO gene, significantly found more often in resistant patients. Second, the objective was to characterize the role of this variant in response to imatinib using model cell lines modified by CRISPR-Cas9 technology. BCL-RAMBO knock-out cells were obtained and allowed to demonstrate the major role of BCL-RAMBO protein in apoptosis inhibition. Additionally, cell lines carrying the variant were created using a new CRISPR-Cas9 mediated technique: the whole exon carrying the nucleotide of interest was replaced with a variant exon. The amino acid change induced by the identified polymorphism was associated with a loss of sensitivity to imatinib treatment in these cell lines as suggested after patient sequencing. These data indicate that BCL-RAMBO, anti apoptotic factor in a CML cell line, could become a novel therapeutic target to overcome drug inefficacy for a subset of resistant patients.

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No / A novel series of 1,4-disubstituted aminoanthraquinones were prepared by ipso-displacement of 1,4-difluoro-5,8-dihydroxyanthraquinones by hydroxylated piperidinyl- or pyrrolidinylalkyl-amino side chains. One aminoanthraquinone (13) was further derivatized to a chloropropyl-amino analogue by treatment with triphenylphosphine-carbon tetrachloride. The compounds were evaluated in the A2780 ovarian cancer cell line and its cisplatin-resistant variants (A2780/ cp70 and A2780/MCP1). The novel anthraquinones were shown to possess up to 5-fold increased potency against the cisplatin-resistant cells compared to the wild-type cells. Growth curve analysis of the hydroxyethylaminoanthraquinone 8 in the osteosarcoma cell line U-2 OS showed that the cell cycle is not frozen, rather there is a late cell cycle arrest consistent with the action of a DNA-damaging topoisomerase II inhibitor. Accumulative apoptotic events, using time lapse photography, indicate that 8 is capable of fully engaging cell cycle arrest pathways in G2 in the absence of early apoptotic commitment. 8 and its chloropropyl analogue 13 retained significant activity against human A2780/cp70 xenografted tumors in mice.