Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Background: Abundant evidence supporting the ergogenic effect of caffeine during endurance exercise exists. Single sporting events, laboratory based studies and inappropriate research design questions the applicability of these studies to triathlon performance. Objectives: The main aims of this study were to i) investigate the ergogenic effect of caffeine supplementation during a triathlon; ii) evaluate parameters that could in part explain why caffeine supplementation is ergogenic, iii) investigate possible factors influencing the ergogenicity of caffeine supplementation and iv) investigate possible confounding factors influencing triathlon performance. Methods: A double-blind, randomized, crossover, controlled, clinical field trial was conducted. Performance data (time to complete (TTC), rating of perceived exertion (RPE) and mood state), parameters explaining the mechanism of action (endocrine-stress response, oxidative stress and plasma lactate), factors influencing ergogenicity (lifestyle, gender and genetics) and triathlon performance (general health, energy- and nutrient intake, body composition, training regime, side-effects of caffeine withdrawal- and supplementation and hydration status) was collected during two Olympic-distance triathlons (T1 and T2). Results: Twenty six Caucasian triathletes (Nm=14, Nf=12) participated (age: 37.8±10.6 years, habitual caffeine intake: 412.7±504.8 mg/day, percentage body fat: 14.5±7.2 %, training/week: 12.8±4.5 hours). There was a 3.7% reduction in swim time (33.5±7.0 vs. 34.8±8.1 minutes) (p=0.05*) and a 1.3% reduction in the overall time to complete the triathlon (149.6±19.8 vs. 151.5±18.6 minutes) (p=0.02*) in the caffeine group. Caffeine did not statistically influence mood state (p=0.72) or RPE (p=0.87), however, a trend was observed for decreased RPE values in the caffeine group. Caffeine supplementation made no difference to markers of endocrine-stress, except for cortisol, which increased beyond the effect observed from exercise (p=0.00*). Oxidative stress was more pronounced in the caffeine group, as seen with elevated leukocyte (p=0.05*), lymphocyte (p=0.05*) and monocyte (p = 0.05*) counts. Caffeine facilitated greater blood lactate accumulation (p=0.04*). Lifestyle, menstrual cycle, menopause, oral contraceptive use and CYP1A2 gene polymorphisms did not statistically influence the effect of caffeine supplementation on triathlon performance. The mean energy- and nutrient intake two days before T1 and T2 was low for energy (36.5±17.6 and 38.9±18.2 kcal/kg BW), estimated energy availability (estEA) (27.9±28.0 and 28.8±25.6 kcal/kg fat free mass) and carbohydrate (CHO) intake (4.1±1.6 and 4.6±2.5 g/kg body weight (BW)) compared to recommendations. The pre-event meal was low in CHO (0.7±0.4 and 0.7±0.5 g/kg BW) and only 62% (N=16) ingested a carbohydrate-electrolyte solution during T1 (CHO: 1.6±2.3 g/kg BW) and T2 (CHO: 0.7±0.4 g/kg BW). Eighty-five percent (N=22) used supplements. Seventy-two percent of pre-menopausal (Nf pre-men=5) and 40% of post-menopausal (Nf post-men=2) females were osteopenic. Of the males, 18% (Nm<50 = 2) had low anterior-posterior spine BMD and 33% (Nm>50 = 1) were osteopenic. Caffeine withdrawal presented as headaches (46%, N=12) and flu-like symptoms (38%, N=10). Side effects of caffeine experienced included shakiness (42%, N=11), heart palpitations (38%, N=10) and gastrointestinal disturbances (38%, N=10). Plasma volume and hydration was not influenced (p=0.70). Conclusion: Caffeine enhanced triathlon performance, but the effect was not as pronounced as seen in previous laboratory trials and did not affect RPE or mood state. Caffeine supplementation augments the endocrine-stress response by further increasing cortisol levels beyond that resulting from endurance exercise and it induces leukocytosis, neutrophillia and lymphocytosis, suggesting the primary ergogenic effect of caffeine may result due to stimulation of both the central and autonomic nervous systems. Lifestyle, gender and genetics did not significantly influence caffeine’s effect on triathlon performance in this cohort. The subjects had low energy, estEA and carbohydrate intake and a high prevalence of osteopenia. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Agtergrond: Voldoende bewyse rakende die ergogeniese effek van kaffeïen gedurende uithouvermoë oefening bestaan. Enkel sportsoorte, laboratorium studies en ongeskikte navorsingsontwerpe bevraagteken die toepaslikheid van hierdie studies op driekamp prestasie. Doelwitte: Die hoofdoelwitte van die studie was om i) die verbetering van prestasie of ergogeniese effek van kaffeïen supplementasie tydens ‘n driekamp kompetisie waar te neem; ii) om verskeie parameters wat die ergogeniese effek van kaffeïen supplementasie deels te verduidelik te ondersoek, iii) om moontlike faktore wat die ergogeniese effek van kaffeïen supplementasie kan beïnvloed te ondersoek en iv) om moontlike faktore wat Olimpiese-afstand driekamp prestasie kan beïnvloed te ondersoek. Metodes: ‘n Dubbel-blinde, lukrake, oorkruis, gekontroleerde, kliniese veldproef is uitgevoer. Prestasie data (tyd om die driekampe te voltooi, waargenome inspanning en gemoedstoestand), parameters wat moontlik die aksie van kaffeïen kan verduidelik (endokrien-stress respons, oksidatiewe stress en plasma laktaat), faktore wat die ergogeniese effek van kaffeïen kan beïnvloed (lewensstyl, geslag en genetika) en faktore wat moontlik driekamp prestasie kan beïnvloed (algemene gesondheid, energie- en nutriëntinname twee dae voor en op die dag van die driekampe, liggaamsamestelling en beendigtheid, oefening twee dae voord die driekampe, newe-effekte van kaffeïen ontrekking- en supplementasie en hidrasie status) is ingesamel tydens twee Olimpiese afstand driekampe (T1 en T2). Resultate: Ses-en-twintig Kaukasiese driekamp atlete (Nm=14, Nf=12) is ingesluit (ouderdom: 37.8±10.6, daaglikse kaffeïen inname: 412.7±504.8 mg/dag, % liggaamsvet: 14.5±7.2%, oefening/week: 12.8±4.5 uur). Daar was 'n 3.7% afname in swem tyd (33.5±7.0 teenoor 34.8±8.1) (p=0.05*) en 'n 1.3% afname in totale tyd om die driekampe te voltooi (149.6±19.8 teenoor 151.5±18.6) (p=0.02*) in die kaffeïen groep. Kaffeïen het nie ‘n statisties beduidende effek op die gemoedstoestand (p=0.72) of die waargenome inspanning (p=0.87) gehad nie, maar 'n tendens is waargeneem vir laer waargenome inspannings-waardes in die kaffeïen groep. Kaffeïen het geen verskil gemaak aan parameters van die stres respons nie, behalwe vir kortisol, wat verhoog het bo- en behalwe die effek van oefening (p=0.00*). Oksitdatiewe stres was meer uitgesproke in die kaffeïen groep, soos waargeneem deur verhoogde witbloedsel (p=0.05*), limfosiet (p=0.05*) en neutrofiel (p = 0.05*) tellings. Kaffeïen fasiliteer die verhoging in bloedlaktaat vlakke (p=0.04*). Lewensstyl, menstruele siklus, menopause, orale voorbehoedmiddel gebruik en CYP1A2 geen polimorfismes het geen beduidende effek op die vermoë van kaffeïen om driekamp prestasie te beïnvloed gehad nie. Die gemiddelde energie- en nutriëntinname twee dae voor T1 en T2 was laer as die aanbevelings vir energie (36.5±17.6 en 38.9±18.2 kcal/kg LG), geskatte energie beskikbaarheid (29.9±28.0 en 28.8±25.6 kcal/kg vetvrye massa) en koolhidraat (CHO) inname (4.1±1.6 en 4.6±2.5 g/kg LG). Die voor-driekamp ete was laag in CHO (0.7±0,4 en 0.7±0.5 g / kg LG) en slegs 62% (N=16) het ‘n koolhidraat-elektroliet oplossing tydens T1 (CHO: 1.6±2.3 g/kg LG) en T2 (CHO: 0.7±0.4 g/kg LG) ingeneem. Vyf-en-tagtig persent (N=22) gebruik dieetaanvullings. Twee-en-sewentig persent van die pre-menopausale (Nf pre-men=5) en 40% van die post-menopausale (Nf post-men=2) vroue het osteopenie volgens die totale liggaams been mineraal digtheid. Van die mans, het 18% (Nm<50 = 2) met lae beendigtheid van die anterior-posterior spina en 33% (Nm>50 = 1) met osteopenie gepresenteer. Waargenome ontrekkingsimptome van kaffeïen was hoofpyn (46%, N=12) en griepagtige simptome (38%, N=10) en newe-effekte was bewerigheid (42%, N=11), hartkloppings (38%, N=10) en spysverteringskanaal versteurings (38%, N=10). Plasma volume en hidrasie was nie beïnvloed nie (p=0.70). Gevolgtrekking: Kaffeïen verbeter driekamp prestasie, maar die effek is nie so uitgesproke soos waargeneem tydens laboratorium studies nie en het nie ‘n beduidende effek op waargenome inspanning of gemoedstoestand getoon nie. Kaffeïen verhoog die stres respons deur die verdere verhoging van kortisol vlakke, bo- en behalwe vlakke waargeneem tydens uithouvermoë oefening en verhoog witbloedsel, limfosiet en neutrofiel tellings. Dit dui daarop dat die primêre ergogeniese effek van kaffeïen supplementasie moontlik as gevolg van stimulasie van beide die sentrale en autonome senuweestelsel voorkom. Lewensstyl, geslag en genetika het nie ‘n beduidende effek op die ergogeniese vermoë van kaffeïen getoon in hierdie studiepopulasie nie. Die deelnemers het ‘n lae energie, geskatte energie beskikbaarheid en koolhidraatinname gehad. Die studiegroep het ‘n hoë prevalensie van osteopenie.

Zetisky Jonathan V 9213052F zeds@telkomsa.net Master of Science in Medicine Faculty of Health Sciences M.Sc (med) Prof Rogers, G / Development in triathlon at the elite level can be improved by knowing the physical, physiological and anthropometrical characteristics of current elite triathletes and single sport athletes, and isolating those factors that contribute to high levels of performance. Much research on this topic has been done with regard to the single sport disciplines of running, swimming and cycling. However, less is known about triathletes. The primary purpose of this study was therefore to see whether and how triathletes differ from the single sport athletes in the disciplines of swimming, cycling and running, and by so doing, to develop a profile of an elite South African triathlete. Thirty-four subjects (triathletes: n = 12; runners: n = 8; swimmers: n = 6 and cyclists: n = 8) were measured for the physical characteristics of age, mass, height, body fat and lean body mass. Anthropometric measurements (skinfolds, bone breadths and girths) were also taken along with the physiological components of VO2 maximum (maximal oxygen consumption) and running economy. Muscle strength and endurance were also measured. The results showed that triathletes do not differ significantly from the single sport athletes (swimmers, cyclists and runners) in any of the components measured. In fact, they are generally most similar to cyclists in all of the categories measured and in each of these, lie between runners and swimmers. Runners and swimmers however, were significantly different (P<0.05) from each other in terms of mass (kg), lean body mass (kg) and maximal oxygen consumption (ml O2/kg.min-1). 3 No significant differences were noted between the triathletes, swimmers, cyclists and runners in endomorphy, mesomorphy and ectomorphy somatotype ratings. Swimmers (2 – 3,9 – 2,7) and cyclists (2 – 4 – 2,8) as well as the triathletes (2 – 3,8 – 2,8) fall into the ectomorphic-mesomorph somatotype while runners (1,8 – 3 – 3,5) on the other hand, were classified as mesomorphic-ectomorph. The study therefore suggests that no single physical, physiological or anthropometrical factor determines successful performance. Rather, it is a blend of physical and physiological traits observed in the single sport athletes that makes a successful triathlete.

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Submitted in partial compliance with the requirements for the Master's Degree in Technology: Chiropractic, Durban University of Technology, 2013. / Background: A triathlon comprises of a combination of swimming, cycling and running. Triathlons are usually classified as sprint distance, Olympic distance, and Ironman or ultra-distance. Triathlon was popularized in the 2000 Summer Olympic Games and, despite this, there is insufficient data relating to injuries in the South African context. This study aimed to determine the injury profile of amateur and semi-professional Kwa-Zulu Natal triathletes. Methods: This Institutional Research Board approved, cross sectional study, included 80 active members of the Kwa-Zulu Natal Triathlon Association. All triathletes completed a questionnaire on training and injury profiles; with only those having had a musculoskeletal complaint additionally completing a clinical consultation. In order to assess associations between presence of injury and explanatory variables, binary logistic regression using backward selection based on likelihood ratios was used. Data was described using frequency tables for categorical data and summary statistics for continuous data. Odds ratios was reported and a p value <0.05 was considered statistically significant. For triathletes reporting injuries, linear regression was used for factors associated with injury severity. Results: Fifty seven triathletes responded giving a response rate of 71% (68% male, 32% female). The point and period (year) prevalence of triathlon-related musculoskeletal pain was 17.5% and 68.4% respectively. The ranking of the most common site of injury in the last 12 months included the knee (64%), low back (21%) and thigh (18%); with females having had a significantly higher risk of injury than males (p=.019). Additionally, injury risk also increased with weight (p=.055), number of triathlons undertaken in the previous year (p=.031), number of triathlons in the last 4 months (p=.009) and running distance during competition times (p=.011). Injury risk decreased with increasing distance of cycling (p=.061) and swimming (p=.030) in a competition, and length of training in- and off-season (p=.105 and p=.043 respectively). Strong trends were demonstrated between injury severity and long-slow training distance (p=.006) and weight (p=.006). By contrast to risk of injury, injury severity was negatively associated with weight, while a long-slow distance was positively associated with the severity of the injury. Of all the health professions, chiropractic was the most utilized health profession. Conclusion and recommendations: The results concur with previous research, but add insights into factors predisposing triathletes to injury. The most common injuries require investigation to develop preventative interventions to reduce injuries in triathletes. Health professionals require education about triathlon-related injuries to improve preventative and curative interventions.

No description available.

Submitted in partial compliance with the requirements for the Master's Degree in Technology: Chiropractic, Durban University of Technology, 2013. / Background: A triathlon comprises of a combination of swimming, cycling and running. Triathlons are usually classified as sprint distance, Olympic distance, and Ironman or ultra-distance. Triathlon was popularized in the 2000 Summer Olympic Games and, despite this, there is insufficient data relating to injuries in the South African context. This study aimed to determine the injury profile of amateur and semi-professional Kwa-Zulu Natal triathletes. Methods: This Institutional Research Board approved, cross sectional study, included 80 active members of the Kwa-Zulu Natal Triathlon Association. All triathletes completed a questionnaire on training and injury profiles; with only those having had a musculoskeletal complaint additionally completing a clinical consultation. In order to assess associations between presence of injury and explanatory variables, binary logistic regression using backward selection based on likelihood ratios was used. Data was described using frequency tables for categorical data and summary statistics for continuous data. Odds ratios was reported and a p value <0.05 was considered statistically significant. For triathletes reporting injuries, linear regression was used for factors associated with injury severity. Results: Fifty seven triathletes responded giving a response rate of 71% (68% male, 32% female). The point and period (year) prevalence of triathlon-related musculoskeletal pain was 17.5% and 68.4% respectively. The ranking of the most common site of injury in the last 12 months included the knee (64%), low back (21%) and thigh (18%); with females having had a significantly higher risk of injury than males (p=.019). Additionally, injury risk also increased with weight (p=.055), number of triathlons undertaken in the previous year (p=.031), number of triathlons in the last 4 months (p=.009) and running distance during competition times (p=.011). Injury risk decreased with increasing distance of cycling (p=.061) and swimming (p=.030) in a competition, and length of training in- and off-season (p=.105 and p=.043 respectively). Strong trends were demonstrated between injury severity and long-slow training distance (p=.006) and weight (p=.006). By contrast to risk of injury, injury severity was negatively associated with weight, while a long-slow distance was positively associated with the severity of the injury. Of all the health professions, chiropractic was the most utilized health profession. Conclusion and recommendations: The results concur with previous research, but add insights into factors predisposing triathletes to injury. The most common injuries require investigation to develop preventative interventions to reduce injuries in triathletes. Health professionals require education about triathlon-related injuries to improve preventative and curative interventions.

Thesis (MNutr)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Background: The Ironman® triathlon is an ultra-endurance event. It has previously been shown that heavy training schedules and racing ultra-endurance events can lead to immune impairment. Evidence supporting the potential role of dietary intake and body composition on immune impairment or upper respiratory tract infections (URTIs) is currently lacking. Aim: To investigate the relationship between dietary intake, body composition and the incidence of URTI in triathletes residing in Port Elizabeth (PE), during training and competition for the Ironman® 2011 triathlon. Method: An observational longitudinal descriptive study with an analytical component was conducted. The study population included triathletes living in PE, who completed an Ironman® distance event one year prior to, and who were training for the April 2011 Ironman®. Habitual dietary intake was assessed with a quantitative food frequency questionnaire; and race dietary strategies with a three day food record. Body composition was determined with anthropometry and the incidence of URTI was assessed with the WURSS-44. A general health screen (SF-36) was also administered. Results: Habitual dietary intake during the three months pre- and post-Ironman® 2011 triathlon was adequate for all nutrients except for carbohydrate intake in female and male participants (pre-Ironman® of 4.0 (1.7) g/kg body weight (BW)/day and 5.4 (1.8) g/kg BW/day; and post-Ironman® 3.0 (1.0) g/kg BW/day and 4.7 (1.5) g/kg BW/day respectively). Carbohydrate-loading strategies were below recommendations with intakes of 6.0 (2.9) and 5.1 (2.5) g/kg BW/day for female and male participants respectively. Race day nutrition strategies were below recommendations for carbohydrate intake. Post-race dietary intake was below recommendations for carbohydrate in the female participants (0.9 (0.5) g/kg BW). Body mass index was 26.6 (3.4) kg/m2 and 26.1 kg/m2 (1.40) for female and male study participants respectively. Body fat percentage was at the upper end for endurance athletes (29.3 (9.4) % and 13.7 (5.1) % for females and males respectively). In this study 25 % of the triathletes (N=20) developed an episode of URTI during the 3 months post-Ironman®. Dietary intake parameters measured three months pre-Ironman® that had a significant influence on URTI were: potassium (p=0.04) and thiamine (p=0.02) and dietary intake parameters measured 3 months post-Ironman® that had a significant influence on URTI were: total protein (p=0.04); isoleucine (p=0.03); leucine (p=0.03); phenylalanine (p=0.03); valine (p=0.02); thiamine (p=0.01); and Beta-tocopherol (p=0.03). Dietary intake parameters measured during the race that had a significant influence on URTI were: selenium (p=0.04); folate (p=0.04) and proline (p=0.02). Body composition did not have a significant influence on URTI. Conclusion: Habitual dietary intake three months pre- and post-Ironman® as well as pre- and post Ironman race strategies were low for carbohydrate. Body composition indicated that athletes were at the upper end associated with endurance sport. There was a relationship found between an episode of URTI and dietary intake. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Agtergrond: Die Ironman® driekamp is 'n ultra-uithouvermoë kompetisie. Daar is voorheen bewys dat swaar oefening skedules en ultra-uithouvermoë kompetisies kan lei tot ‘n immuungebrek. Daar is tans ‘n tekort aan wetenskaplike bewyse wat die potensiële rol van dieetinname en liggaamsamestelling op immuungebrek of boonste lugweginfeksies ondersoek. Doel: Die doel van die studie was om ondersoek in te stel oor die verhouding tussen dieetinname, liggaamsamestelling en die insidensie van boonste lugweg infeksies in driekamp atlete woonagtig in Port Elizabeth (PE), tydens oefening en deelname aan die Ironman® 2011 driekamp. Metodes: 'n Waargenome, longitudinale beskrywende studie is gedoen met 'n analitiese komponent. Die studiepopulasie het bestaan uit driekampatlete woonagtig in PE, wat 'n Ironman® afstand kompetisie voltooi het een jaar voor en wat oefen vir die April 2011 Ironman® kompetisie. Gewoontelike dieetinname is bepaal met 'n kwantitatiewe voedselfrekwensie vraelys, en dieet strategieë rondom die byeenkoms met 'n drie dag voedselrekord. Liggaamsamestelling is bepaal met antropometrie en die insidensie van boonste lugweg infeksies is bepaal met die WURSS-44. 'n algemene gesondheid vraelys (SF- 36) is ook ingevul. Resultate: Die gewoontelike dieetinname gedurende die drie maande voor- en na-Ironman® 2011 was voldoende vir alle voedingstowwe, behalwe vir koolhidraat-inname in die vroulike en manlike deelnemers (voor Ironman® 4.0 (1.7) g / kg liggaamsmassa (LM) / dag en 5.4 (1.8) g / kg LM / dag, en na Ironman® 3.0 (1.0) g / kg LM / dag en 4.7 (1.5) g / kg LM / dag onderskeidelik). Koolhidraatlading strategieë was ontoereikend met innames van 6.0 (2.9) en 5.1 (2.5) g / kg BW / dag vir vroulike en manlike deelnemers onderskeidelik. Die inname op die dag van die byeenkoms was onvoldoende vir koolhidraat. Die dieetinname na die byeenkoms was onvoldoende vir koolhidraat inname in die vroulike deelnemers (0.9 (0.5) g / kg LM). Die liggaamsmassa-indeks was 26.6 (3.4) kg/m2 en 26.1 (1.4) kg/m2 vir vroulike en manlike deelnemers onderskeidelik. Persentasie liggaamsvet was aan die boonste grens geassosieer met uithouvermoë oefening atlete 29.3 (9.4) % en 13.7 (5.1) % vir vrouens en mans onderskeidelik. Die insidense van boonste lugweg infeksies was 25% (N=20) gedurende die drie maande na Ironman®. Dieetinname paramters wat gemeet was drie maande voor Ironman® wat beduidende beïnvloed met boonste lugweginfeksies getoon het, was, kalium (p=0.04) en tiamien (p=0.02) en die dieetinname parameters wat drie maande na Ironman® gemeet is en betekenisvolle beïnvloed getoon het met boonste lugweginfeksies was, totale proteïen (p=0.04); isoleusien (p=0.03), leusien (p=0.03), fenielalanien (p=0.03), valien (p=0.02), tiamien (p=0.01), en B-tocopherol (p=0.03). Die dieetinname parameters wat gemeet was tydens die wedloop wat beduidende beïnvloed met boonste lugweginfeksies getoon het na Ironman® 2011 was, selenium (p=0.04), folaat (p=0.04) en prolien (p=0.02). Die antropometriese parameters gemeet het nie beïnvloed op boonste lugweginfeksies gehad nie. Gevolgtrekking: Die gewoontelike dieetinname drie maande voor- en na Ironman® sowel as voor- en na Ironman® kompetisie strategieë was onvoldoende vir koolhidrate. Liggaamsamestelling het aangedui dat atlete aan die boonste grens geassosieer met uithouvermoë oefening geval het. Daar was beduidende beïnvloed gevind tussen dieetinname en boonste lugweginfeksies.

Inledning Triathlon är en uthållighetsidrott där momenten simning, cykel och löpning utförs i en följd. Svensk triathlon har vuxit beträffande antal utövare och tävlingar sedan år 2005. Syfte och frågeställningar Studiens syfte var att undersöka hur de tidigare outforskade svenska triathleter är fördelade beträffande kön, ålder och huvudsaklig tävlingsdistans, samt vilka skador som förekommer Hur ser fördelningen ut mellan män och kvinnor som tränar/tävlar mot viss distans? Hur ser fördelningen ut mellan olika kategorier av erfarenhet (år av idrottsutövande) mellan dem som tränar/tävlar mot viss distans? Hur är prevalensen för olika skador och hur ser skadepanoramat ut? Hur är prevalensen för skadeproblematik i förhållande till huvudsaklig tävlingsdistans? Metod En enkätundersökning baserad på tidigare internationell forskning bestående av tolv flervalsfrågor skapades beträffande den svenske triathletens bakgrund, erfarenheter, tränings- och/eller tävlingsdistans och skadeproblematik. Totalt inkom 614 varav 564 (92 %) kompletta svar. Studiens resultat visar på att triathleter som tränar och/eller tävlar i sprintdistans är de som är mest skadefria (30 %). Ökad distans ger ökad risk för skador och/eller överbelastningsproblematik, nästan 18 % av de som tränar/tävlar i längre distans än sprint har drabbats av akut muskelbristning. Flest andel (49,3 %) triathleter påträffas i olympisk och/eller halv Ironman-distans. Något fler kvinnor (24 %) än män (15 %) är aktiva inom sprint och färre kvinnor (27 %) än män (36 %) i ultradistans. Slutsats Svensk triathlon och triathleter är i denna studie snarlik fördelade likt tidigare internationell forskning. Manliga triathleter tränar och/eller tävlar i längre distans än sprint i större utsträckning (85 %) än kvinnliga (76 %). Det är marginellt fler triathleter som är 40 år eller äldre och flertalet av triathleterna (85 %) tränar och/eller tävlar i olympisk distans eller längre. Överbelastningsproblematik är det som svenska triathleter drabbas av i störst utsträckning (60 %), oavsett tävlingsdistans, och vanligen (64 %) drabbas de nedre extremiteterna. / Introduction Triathlon is the sport in which the athlete compete in the order swimming, cycling and running. Swedish triathlon has since year 2005 grown in numbers of practitioners and events. The aim of this study was to investigate how the previously non-examined Swedish triathlon have developed regarding numbers of events, practitioners, common injuries for the triathletes and at what distances the Swedish triathletes train and compete? The issues to be resolved were: How is the distribution between the sexes and race distance? How is the distribution between different categories of experiences (years as athlete) and different race distances? What is the prevalence for triathlon injuries and what injuries are there? What is the prevalence of injuries among the triathletes in different primary race distances? The method involved previous international research done in the field to serve as a basis for the creation of a questionnaire containing twelve multiple choice questions regarding the Swedish triathletes previous experiences within the sport and previous (if any) injuries sustained during either practice or race. 614 answers were collected of which 562 (92 %) were complete. Results from this study shows that the triathletes which are active at the sprint distance are those who have the highest rate (30 %) of answers with "no injury". Longer race distances means an increased risk for overuse injury, almost 18 % of the triathletes which train and/or compete at the longer distances have suffered from an acute muscle rupture. Most of the triathletes (49,3 %) in this study were active in the Olympic and/or half-Ironman distance. The conclusions of this study are that Swedish triathlon and triathletes are comparable to previous international studies. There is a slight difference between the sexes in race distance; there are slightly more (24 %) women active in sprint than men (15 %) and there are slightly less women (27 %) who are active in the Ironman distance than men (36 %). Among the Swedish triathletes there are marginally more of them who are 40 years of age or more and 85 % of all the triathletes train and/or race in Olympic distance or longer. The Swedish triathletes suffers commonly from overuse injury, regardless of race distance, in the lower extremities. This was the case for 64 % of the triathletes of which who completed the questionnaire.

Thesis (MNutr(Interdisciplinary Health Sciences. Human Nutrition))--Stellenbosch University, 2008. / Objective: The aim of this study was to determine the body composition, dietary intake and supplement use among training olympic and ironman distance triathletes residing in the Western Cape region. Design: Descriptive, analytical, cross-sectional study design Setting: Western Cape Province (South Africa) Subjects: Triathletes residing in the Western Cape region registered with Triathlon South Africa (N = 26) Outcome measures: Percentage body fat, total energy intake, macro– and micronutrient intake, use and reasons for use of nutritional supplements or nutritional ergogenic aids. Results: The mean age of the men and women was 37.9 [Standard Deviation (SD) 6.82] and 37.5 (9.6) years respectively. The corresponding mean amount of training per week for men and women respectively were 15.1 (4.1) and 15.3 (4.7) hours. The percentage body fat as determined by multi-frequency bio-electrical impedance analysis of the men and women were 12.97% (4.3) and 21.4% (6.3) respectively. The mean dietary macronutrient intake as determined by a three day food record for men was for total energy intake 14 534.7kJ (4509.8), carbohydrate intake 5.3g/kg body weight (BW) (1.9), protein intake 2.0g/kg BW (0.5) and fat intake 34.6% (10.31) of total energy requirements. Dietary micronutrients not reaching 67% of dietary reference intakes (DRI) from food alone included iodine (44%) and fluoride (49%). Vitamin C (154%). Micronutrient intake above upper limit (UL) was sodium (213%), manganese (162%) and niacin (228%). The dietary macronutrient intake for women was for total energy intake 9004.1kJ (2368.8), carbohydrate intake 3.5g/kg BW (1.0), protein intake 1.2g/kg BW (0.2) and fat intake 29.8% of total energy intake (6.0). Micronutrients not reaching 67% of the DRI were chloride (61%), iodine (31%) and fluoride (52%). Micronutrient intake above the UL was vitamin C (218%) and manganese (174%). The dietary intake of the men was inadequate in carbohydrate, provided sufficient energy and protein and excessive fat. The dietary intake of the women was inadequate in total energy and carbohydrate, with an adequate protein intake and excessive fat intake. Although the sample size was very small, some associations were found between dietary intake and clinical health status. Seventy three percent of the triathletes use over the counter dietary supplements. The supplements used most often included carbohydrate supplements (81%), multivitamin and mineral supplements (81%) single vitamins (65%), protein supplements (100%), single minerals (58%), antioxidants (54%) and herbal supplements (42%). Most popular reasons for consuming supplements included recovery (62%), increasing energy supply (61%), enhancing immune function (50%), exercise performance enhancement (46%), increasing muscle mass (54%) and to make up for an inadequate diet or nutrient replacement (31%). Conclusion: Percentage body fat of the men and women were at the upper end of the range associated with elite athletes. The athletes have a fairly good intake of macro– and micro-nutrients. Inadequate habitual carbohydrate intake can be attenuated by the vast majority of the triathletes taking additional carbohydrate supplementation. Supplements were used widely among the athletes, whether it is scientifically proven to be beneficial or not.

This thesis is presented as a collection of four studies in which the role of self-control in athletic performance is examined. Considerable evidence has documented the beneficial effects of trait self-control and robust self-confidence on a wide range of behaviours. However, the relationships between these constructs have yet to be specifically explored within the sport domain. As well as exploring the trait perspective of self-control, research has employed self-control manipulations and laboratory performance to examine state self-control. The completion of tasks requiring self-control have led to impaired performance on physical tasks, also requiring self-control. But it remains unclear whether previous exertion of self-control impairs subsequent performance when self-regulation is potentially automatic, and if any observed effects are variable over different stages of performance. Building on this work, glucose supplementation, and the duration of self-control effort have been proposed as potential moderators that may influence performance effects, yet controversy exists surrounding glucose consumption, and task duration has not been appropriately considered. Furthermore, the identification of explanatory mechanisms for performance decrements following self-control use is of theoretical significance. In particular, research is yet to explore whether an individual s perceptions of pain may explain why self-control exertion interferes with subsequent performance on a physical task. The current thesis aims to address these limitations of the extant literature. Study One examined whether an individual s general ability to exert self-control might be an important mechanistic variable that explains the relationship between robust self-confidence and athletic performance. Following an examination of trait self-control, an exploration of state self-control was deemed more relevant to situational performance. Therefore, Study Two and Three utilised a sequential-task paradigm to examine whether exerting self-control impairs subsequent endurance performance in well-trained individuals, and whether any observed effects are variable over different stages of endurance performance. Study Two and Three also examined moderators of the depletion effect. In particular, the potential for glucose supplementation (Study Two), and duration of self-control effort (Study Three), to attenuate any decrements in performance due to initial self-control exertion were explored. Following the investigation of moderators, Study Four examined whether performance decrements can be explained by an individual s perceptions of pain. Overall, the findings of this thesis suggest that trait self-control represents a potentially important mechanism by which athlete s with strong robust self-confidence progress and perform successfully. Furthermore, prior exertion of self-control impairs subsequent self-regulatory efforts during well-practiced endurance performance, but these effects are variable over different stages of performance. In addition, extended self-control effort may lead to the conservation of self-control, whilst glucose supplementation does not moderate self-control ability. Finally, perceptions of pain may explain why self-control exertion interferes with subsequent performance on a physical task.