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<p> Two studies are presented in this thesis. First part is about the origin of tRNA genes in Trypanosoma and Leishmania. These organisms have special mitochondrial DNA, termed kinetoplast DNA (kDNA), which is unique in its structure and function. kDNA is a massive network which is composed of thousands of connected DNA circles. Unlike most other mitochondrial genomes, there is no gene encoding tRNAs in their kDNAs. So all the tRNAs used in mitochondria must be encoded on nuclear genes and transported from the cytoplasm into the mitochondria. So our question of interest is where the tRNA genes in their nucleus come from. We carry out phylogenetic analysis of these genes and the corresponding ones in bacteria, mitochondria and eukaryotic nuclei. There is no evidence indicating gene transfer from mitochondria to nucleus on the basis of this analysis. These results are consistent with the simplest hypothesis, i.e. that all tRNA genes of Trypanosoma and Leishmania have the same origin as nuclear genes of other eukaryotes.</p> <p> The second part is about the comparison of eukaryote phylogenies obtained from mitochondrial rRNA and protein sequences. We carried out phylogenetic analysis for the species which have complete mitochondrial genomes by using both concatenated mitochondrial rRNA and protein sequences. We got phylogenies for three groups, fungi/metazoan, plant/algae and stramenopile/alveolate group. The analysis is useful for the further study of position of the genetic code changes and the mechanisms involved.</p> / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc)

Throughout evolution, plants have developed a sophisticated network of signaling pathways allowing the activation and regulation of immune responses. The identification of metabolic pathways which are involved in modulating the intensity of that immune responses is an important challenge in the field of plant-pathogen interaction. With this aim, we performed two genetic approaches in Arabidopsis thaliana against the disease caused by the hemibiotroph bacterial pathogen Pseudomonas syringae DC3000. We demonstrate that the regulation of two pathways, related between them, is crucial to activate an effective immune response. By means of a genetic screening of regulators components of plant immunity, we identified the mutant scs9 (suppressor of csb3) which shows an affected resistance that triggers a enhanced susceptibility to P.s. DC3000 through an independent pathway of salicylic acid (SA)-mediated immune response. The cloning and characterization of SCS9 reveals that it codes for 2'-O-ribose tRNA methyltransferase. Our results indicate that the SCS9-mediated methylation of nucleosides N32 and N34, located in the tRNAs anticodon loop, is crucial for the plant immunity effectiveness. On the other hand, with a chemical genetic screening of agonist molecules of the immune response, we identified the sulfonamides as priming inducer molecules that exhibit a faster and/or stronger activation of SA-related defense responses and enhanced resistance to P.s. DC3000. Analysis of the mechanism of action of these molecules reveals that synthesis and accumulation of folates exert a SA-independent negative control on the immune response to P.s. DC3000. Through comparative proteomic analysis we identified the 5-methyltetrahydropteroyltriglutamate homocysteine methyltransferase 1 (methione synthase, here named as METS1), enzyme responsible of the methionine synthesis in the folate-dependent 1C metabolism and overaccumulated in scs9 mutants, as modulator component in the immune response to P.s. DC3000. We observed that the overexpression of METS1 in transgenic plants of Arabidopsis suppresses plant immune responses and promotes enhanced susceptibility to P.s. DC3000. This repressor effect is due to a genome-wide increase in DNA methylation level, which is mediated by the overaccumulation of METS1 and the consequent increase of folate-dependent methionine synthesis. Therefore, the findings of this work provide a deeper knowledge about the mechanisms by which the DNA methylation and epigenetic regulation exert an influence on plant immunity through folate metabolism, particularly by METS1, whose synthesis is regulated through specific tRNA modifications mediated by SCS9. / Las plantas, a lo largo de la evolución, han desarrollado un sofisticado entramado de rutas de señalización que permiten la activación y el control de la respuesta inmune. Identificar qué procesos metabólicos participan en modular la amplitud de dicha respuesta inmune es un reto en el campo de la interacción planta-patógeno. Con este propósito, se han utilizado dos aproximaciones genéticas llevadas a cabo en Arabidopsis thaliana contra la infección por la bacteria hemibiotrofa Pseudomonas syringae DC3000. Los resultados ponen de manifiesto la importancia de la regulación de dos mecanismos, a su vez relacionados, para la activación de una respuesta inmune efectiva. Mediante un rastreo genético en busca de componentes reguladores de la inmunidad, identificamos el mutante que denominamos scs9 (supresor de csb3). scs9 muestra una resistencia afectada que conlleva un incremento en la susceptibilidad a P.s. DC3000 a través de un mecanismo independiente a la respuesta inmune mediada por ácido salicílico (SA). La clonación y caracterización de SCS9 revela que codifica una 2'-O-ribosa metiltransferasa de tRNA. Nuestros resultados indican que la modificación por metilación mediada por SCS9 de los nucleósidos N32 y N34 de la región anticodón de los tRNAs, es clave para la inmunidad de la planta. Por otro lado, mediante un rastreo de genética química en busca de moléculas agonistas de la respuesta inmune, identificamos un grupo de sulfonamidas como moléculas activadoras de un mecanismo de priming. Este conlleva una más rápida y/o más intensa activación de la respuesta defensiva dependiente de SA y de un incremento de la resistencia frente a P.s. DC3000. El análisis del mecanismo de acción de dichas moléculas revela que la síntesis y acumulación de folatos ejerce un control negativo sobre la respuesta inmune frente a P.s. DC3000; y ese control es ejercido de manera independiente a la ruta de señalización mediada por SA. A través de un análisis proteómico comparativo identificamos la proteína 5-metiltetrahidropteroiltriglutamato homocisteína metiltransferasa 1 (metionina sintasa, denominada aquí METS1), responsable de la síntesis de metionina en el metabolismo C1 dependiente de folatos y sobreacumulada en los mutantes scs9. Esta proteína participa entonces como componente modulador de la respuesta inmune a P.s. DC3000. La sobreexpresión de METS1 en plantas transgénicas observamos que suprime la respuesta inmune y conlleva a un incremento en la susceptibilidad frente a P.s. DC3000. Dicho efecto represor de la resistencia acontece a raíz de un incremento del nivel de metilación de DNA en todo el genoma mediado por la sobreacumulación de METS1 y del consiguiente posible aumento en la síntesis de metionina dependiente de folatos. Por tanto, estos resultados ahondan en el conocimiento de cómo la metilación de DNA y el control epigenético ejercen una influencia sobre la respuesta inmune. Esta influencia puede ser controlada a través del metabolismo de folatos, y en particular a través de METS1, enzima cuya síntesis está a su vez controlada por determinadas modificaciones de tRNA mediadas por SCS9. / Les plantes, al llarg de l'evolució, han desenvolupat un sofisticat entramat de rutes de senyalització que permeten l'activació i el control de la resposta immune. Identificar quins procesos metabòlics participen en la modulació de l'amplitud d'aquesta resposta immune és un repte en el camp de la interacció planta-patogen. Amb aquest propòsit, s'han utilitzat dues aproximacions genètiques en Arabidopsis thaliana en resposta a la infecció pel bacteri hemibiotrofo Pseudomonas syringae DC3000. Els resultats posen de manifest la importància de la regulació de dos mecanismes, al seu torn relacionats, per a l'activació d'una resposta immune efectiva. Mitjançant un rastreig genètic per a la recerca de components reguladors de la immunitat, es va identificar el mutant que denominem scs9 (supresor de csb3). scs9 mostra una resistència afectada que comporta un increment en la susceptibilitat a P.s. DC3000 fent ús d'un mecanisme independent a la resposta immune mediada per l'àcid salicílic (SA). La clonació i caracterització de SCS9 revela que codifica una 2'-O-ribosa metiltransferasa de tRNA. Els nostres resultats indiquen que la modificació per metilació mediada per SCS9 dels nucleòsids N32 i N34 de la regió anticodó dels tRNAs, és clau per a la immunitat de la planta. D'altra banda, per mitjà d'un rastreig de genètica química per a la recerca de molècules agonistes de la resposta immune, es va identificar un grup de sulfonamidas com a molècules activadores d'un mecanisme de priming. Aquest, comporta una més rápida i/o més intensa activació de la resposta defensiva dependent de SA i d'un increment de la resistència enfront de P.s. DC3000. L'anàlisi del mecanisme d'acció d'aquestes molècules revela que la síntesis i acumulació de folats exerceix un control negatiu sobre la resposta immune davant el bacteri P.s. DC3000; i eixe control és exercit de manera independent a la ruta de senyalització mediada per SA. Amb un anàlisi proteòmic comparatiu es va identificar la proteïna 5-metiltetrahidropteroiltriglutamato homocisteína metiltransferasa 1 (metionina sintasa, denominada ací METS1), responsable de la síntesi de metionina al metabolisme C1 dependent de folats i sobreacumulada en els mutants scs9. Aquesta, així doncs, es troba participant com a component modulador de la resposta immune a P.s. DC3000. La sobreexpressió de METS1 en plantes transgèniques suprimeix la resposta immune i comporta a un increment en la susceptibilitat per P.s. DC3000. L'efecte repressor de la resistència succeïx arran d'un increment del nivell de metilació de DNA en tot el genoma, mediat per la sobreacumulació de METS1 i del consegüent posible augment en la síntesi de metionina dependent de folats. Per tant, aquests resultats aprofundixen en el coneixement de com la metilació de DNA i el control epigenètic exerceixen una influència sobre la resposta immune. Aquesta influència pot ser controlada mitjançant el metabolisme de folats, i en particular a través de l'enzim METS1, la síntesi de la qual està al seu torn controlada per determinades modificacions de tRNA mediades per SCS9. / González García, B. (2017). Implicación de las modificaciones de tRNA y del metabolismo de los folatos en la respuesta inmune de Arabidopsis [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/86162

Proteins, as pivotal players in biological processes, undergo evolutionary changes due to mutations, whether spontaneous or induced by external factors. These mutations lead to significant genomic differences, contributing to the emergence of new species. From the basic principles of evolution, including variation, selection, fitness, inheritance, and reproduction, to the detailed analysis of specific proteins in different taxonomic groups, this dissertation explores the intricate field of protein evolution. In this thesis the study of bacterial and eukaryotic proteins is covered. It includes the study of enzymes in bacteria, such as CCA-adding enzyme and poly(A) polymerase, providing insights into the evolutionary divergence of these vital proteins. An analysis of existing species protein sequences and the prediction of corresponding ancestral sequences reveals a putative ancestral gammaproteobacterial CCA-adding enzyme, which is functional, thermotolerant and has a high specificity for CCA incorporation and substrate interactions. To address the challenges of suboptimal protein sequence data quality, the develop- ment of the ExceS-A split aligner is presented, which provides an automated solution to search for high quality protein sequences across diverse species groups. It is designed for exon-by-exon comparisons of coding sequences. The computation of exon/intron structure, inherent in spliced alignment procedures, is crucial for distinguishing paralo- gous members within gene families. The simplicity and effectiveness of this blat-based approach offer distinct advantages, especially for genes with extensive introns and applications involving fragmented genome assemblies, outperforming established tools in these scenarios. The application of the tool ExceS-A is then demonstrated in the study of neu- ropeptide Y/RFamide-like receptors in nematodes, shedding light on the evolutionary dynamics within this G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) family. The Neuropeptide Y/RFamide-like receptors play crucial roles in locomotion, feeding, and reproduction. This extensively studied receptor group in Caenorhabditis elegans, comprising 41 recep- tors, served as a starting point for understanding the family’s expansion in nematodes. 159 nematode genomes revealed a total of 1557 neuropeptide Y/RFamide-like receptor sequences. The high conservation of these receptors across nematoda underscores their significance while highlighting family diversification in nematode evolution, with clade-specific duplications and losses across the phylum and unique patterns observed in the genus Caenorhabditis. Further, the dissertation focuses on the detailed analysis of GPCRs, with a particular interest in the ADRB2 and ADRB1 and Y1R and Y2R receptor, unraveling their conservation patterns and investigating their roles in G protein coupling. The investigation extends to the broader context of GPCR signaling pathways, emphasizing the crucial long-distance signaling and proposing hypotheses regarding amino acid conservation within chordates. Molecular dynamics simulations are used to uncover allosteric mechanisms and networks, providing valuable insights into protein dynamics and interactions. The investigation aimed at determining whether the conservation of amino acids within the chordate group is higher along the transmission pathway of GPCRs compared to the normal shortest path. Contrary to the hypothesis, results for ADRB2 and Y2R receptors, both with ligands and G-proteins, showed no significant difference in conservation rates between weighted and unweighted paths. Analysis revealed that unweighted paths favor hydrophobic interactions, while weighted paths predominantly involve peptide bonds, emphasizing their importance in allosteric signal transmission. Possible reasons for the lack of a significant increase in conservation values include the overall high conservation of amino acids in transmembrane helix 2-6 and the need for more precise information about mutual information in conservation score calculations. Future efforts will explore modified k-shortest path algorithms to identify alternative geometrically related contacts. The dissertation concludes by highlighting the crucial role of bioinformatics in performing complex analyses and processing large datasets. The basics laid here provide a foundation for interdisciplinary collaboration and contribute significant insights into the evolution of proteins. As a comprehensive knowledge framework, this work is able to guide future research efforts and underscores the ongoing importance of uncovering the complex interactions that govern protein evolution in the field of biological research.

Thesis advisor: Abhishek Chatterjee / Genetic code expansion (GCE) is an enabling technology whereby noncanonical amino acids (ncAAs) can be site-specifically incorporated into proteins of interest, allowing for vast applications and an improved understanding of structure-function relationships in biology. GCE stands out as a versatile platform due to the use of a variety of engineered aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase (aaRS)/transfer RNA (tRNA) pairs, and it has endowed proteins with over 200 distinct ncAAs in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic systems. My dissertation outlines endeavors aimed at broadening the chemical diversity of α-amino side chains and substrates beyond α-amino acids in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms through the utilization of GCE technology. This was achieved by creating universal GCE platforms called altered translational machinery (ATM) strains, which eliminate the limitations of orthogonality for the evolution of aaRS/tRNA pairs. This expansion enables the use of the same aaRS/tRNA pair for ncAA incorporation functionalities into multiple domains of life. Moreover, the diversity of ncAAs that can be genetically encoded in eukaryotic cells was enhanced by evolving the E. coli leucyl-tRNA synthetase (EcLeuRS)/tRNA pair using a yeast-based selection system. This advancement facilitated the incorporation of novel ncAAs into proteins within mammalian cells. Additionally, I worked toward developing a platform for introducing monomers into the genetic code beyond α-amino acids. This involved developing an aaRS evolution platform that doesn't rely on translation as a selectable readout. Finally, I worked towards the creation of polyester-polyamide oligomers with sequence control as a step towards the goal of generating sequence-defined biopolymers with new-to-nature backbone chemistries. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2024. / Submitted to: Boston College. Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: Chemistry.

Les processus mitochondriaux tels que la réplication et la traduction sont effectués par des complexes multiprotéiques. Par contre, le métabolisme et la voie de maturation des ARN mitochondriaux (p. ex précurseurs des ARNt et des ARNr) sont habituellement traités comme une suite de réactions catalysées par des protéines séparées. L’exécution fidèle et optimale de ces processus mitochondriaux, exige un couplage étroit nécessaire pour la canalisation des intermédiaires métaboliques. Or, les évidences en faveur de l'interconnexion postulée de ces processus cellulaires sont peu nombreuses et proviennent en grande partie des interactions protéine-protéine. Contrairement à la perception classique, nos résultats révèlent l’organisation des fonctions cellulaires telles que la transcription, la traduction, le métabolisme et la régulation en supercomplexes multifonctionnels stables, dans les mitochondries des champignons (ex Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Aspergillus nidulans et Neurospora crassa), des animaux (ex Bos taurus), des plantes (B. oleracea et Arabidopsis thaliana) et chez les bactéries (ex E. coli) à partir desquelles les mitochondries descendent. La composition de ces supercomplexes chez les champignons et les animaux est comparable à celle de levure, toutefois, chez les plantes et E. coli ils comportent des différences notables (ex, présence des enzymes spécifiques à la voie de biosynthèse des sucres et les léctines chez B. oleracea). Chez la levure, en accord avec les changements dûs à la répression catabolique du glucose, nos résultats révèlent que les supercomplexes sont dynamiques et que leur composition en protéines dépend des stimulis et de la régulation cellulaire. De plus, nous montrons que l’inactivation de la voie de biosynthèse des lipides de type II (FASII) perturbe l’assemblage et/ou la biogenèse du supercomplexe de la RNase P (responsable de la maturation en 5’ des précurseurs des ARNt), ce qui suggère que de multiples effets pléiotropiques peuvent être de nature structurale entre les protéines. Chez la levure et chez E. coli, nos études de la maturation in vitro des précurseurs des ARNt et de la protéomique révèlent l’association de la RNase P avec les enzymes de la maturation d’ARNt en 3’. En effet, la voie de maturation des pré-ARNt et des ARNr, et la dégradation des ARN mitochondriaux semblent êtres associées avec la machinerie de la traduction au sein d’un même supercomplexe multifonctionnel dans la mitochondrie de la levure. Chez E. coli, nous avons caractérisé un supercomplexe similaire qui inclut en plus de la RNase P: la PNPase, le complexe du RNA degradosome, l’ARN polymérase, quatre facteurs de transcription, neuf aminoacyl-tRNA synthétases, onze protéines ribosomiques, des chaperons et certaines protéines métaboliques. Ces résultats supposent l’association physique de la transcription, la voie de maturation et d’aminoacylation des ARNt, la dégradation des ARN. Le nombre de cas où les activités cellulaires sont fonctionnellement et structurellement associées est certainement à la hausse (ex, l’éditosome et le complexe de la glycolyse). En effet, l’organisation en supercomplexe multifonctionnel représente probablement l’unité fonctionnelle dans les cellules et les analyses de ces super-structures peuvent devenir la prochaine cible de la biologie structurale. / It is known that processes such as transcription, translation and intron splicing require a multitude of proteins (plus a few non-protein components) organized in large ‘molecular machines’. But, according to traditional views, processing of RNA precursors (e.g., tRNA and rRNA) and metabolic pathways are pools of individual enzymes (single proteins or small complexes), with sequential enzymatic reaction steps connected via diffusible metabolites. This perception is incompatible with the ‘molecular crowding’ in most cellular compartments (e.g., 60% in the mitochondrial matrix). It is also not in line with the cumulating indirect evidence from comprehensive studies of protein-protein interactions and affinity purification, showing that numerous protein complexes involving different metabolic and regulatory processes are interconnected. However, direct evidence of extensive cross-talk among diverse cellular processes remains to be clearly demonstrated. Here we show that in mitochondria of yeast and other fungi (Neurospora crassa and Rhizopus oryzae), animal (Bos taurus), plant (Brassica oleracea), and in E. coli (standing for the “bacterial ancestor” of mitochondria), metabolism is physically interlinked (in supercomplexes) with translation, replication, transcription and RNA processing. Further, the supercomplexes also contain a variety of helper proteins, in support of earlier reports that describe such proteins as important structural units assisting complex assembly. Whereas the composition of supercomplexes in fungi (e.g., Neurospora crassa), animals and yeast is relatively similar, plants and E. coli present substantial compositional differences (e.g., plant-specific enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of sugars and secondary metabolites). In yeast, the supercomplex pattern of glucose-repressed cells is completely different from that of cells grown on galactose/glycerol, and the protein composition perfectly correlates with known regulatory changes under glucose repression. The destabilization of the complex organization is also illustrated by the deletion of genes in the mitochondrial fatty acid type II biosynthetic pathway (mutant strain oar1Δ). Mutants have both, a defect in fatty acid synthesis and in 5’ processing of mitochondrial tRNA, and no longer have a supercomplex containing Oar1p and components of RNase P (5’ tRNA processing). The pleiotropic mutant phenotype is best explained by a structural (assembly) defect. Also in yeast mitochondria, we demonstrate that RNase P and tRNA Z activities are part of a large complex, which further includes the RNA degradosome complex, five additional RNA processing proteins, and several other mitochondrial pathways. 5’ and 3’ tRNA processing enzymes are also associated in a large, multifunctional supercomplex in E. coli that includes six out of the seven proteins of the RNA degradosome, nine aminoacyl-tRNA synthases, RNA polymerase plus four transcription factors, eleven ribosomal proteins plus four translation factors, several components of protein folding and maturation, and a small set of metabolic enzymes. Apparently, not only is RNA processing coordinated, but it is also structurally connected to aminoacylation, transcription and other cellular functions. The number of documented cases where functionally related activities are structurally integrated is definitely increasing (e.g., editosome, glycolysis complex, etc). Indeed, structural integration of related functions and pathways may turn out to be a principle and the analyses of such super-structures may become a next structural biology frontier.