La protéine kinase activée par AMP (AMPK) est un senseur et régulateur central de l'état énergétique cellulaire, mais ces voies de signalisation ne sont pour le moment que partiellement comprises. Deux criblages non-biaisés pour la recherche de partenaires d'interaction et de substrats d'AMPK ont précédemment été réalisés dans le laboratoire. Ces derniers ont permis l'identification de plusieurs candidats (protéines), mais leur rôle fonctionnel et physiologique n'était pas encore établi. Ici nous avons caractérisé la fonction de la relation entre AMPK et quatre partenaires d'interaction : gluthation S-transferases (GSTP1 and GSTM1), fumarate hydratase (FH), l'E3 ubiquitine-ligase (NRDP1), et les protéines associées à la membrane (VAMP2 and VAMP3). Chacune de ces interactions parait avoir un rôle différent dans la signalisation AMPK, agissant en amont ou en aval de la protéine AMPK. GSTP1 et GSTM1 contribueraient à l'activation d'AMPK en facilitant la S-glutathionylation d'AMPK en conditions oxydatives moyennes. Cette régulation non-canonique suggère que l'AMPK peut être un senseur de l'état redox cellulaire. FH mitochondrial est l'unique substrat AMPK clairement identifié. Etonnamment le site de phosphorylation se trouve dans le peptide signal mitochondrial, ce qui pourrait affecter l'import mitochondrial. NRDP1, protéine pour laquelle nous avons pour la première fois développé un protocole de production de la protéine soluble, est faiblement phosphorylée par l'AMPK. L'interaction ne sert pas à l'ubiquitination d'AMPK, mais affecte le renouvellement de NRDP1. Finalement, l'interaction de VAMP2/3 avec AMPK n'implique pas d'évènement de phosphorylation ou d'activation d'un des partenaires. Nous proposons un mécanisme de recrutement d'AMPK par VAMP2/3 (" scaffold ") au niveau des vésicules en exocytose. Ce recrutement favoriserait la phosphorylation de substrats de l'AMPK à la surface des vésicules en exocytoses. Une fois mis en commun, nos résultats enrichissent les connaissances sur les voies de signalisation AMPK, et suggèrent une grande complexité de ces dernières. Plus que les kinases en amont et des substrats en aval, la régulation de la signalisation d'AMPK se fait via des modifications secondaires autres que la phosphorylation, via des effets sur le renouvellement de protéines, et probablement via un recrutement spécifique de l'AMPK dans certains compartiments cellulaires. / AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is a central energy sensor and regulator of cellular energy state, but the AMPK signaling network is still incompletely understood. Two earlier non-biased screens for AMPK interaction partners and substrates performed in the laboratory identified several candidate proteins, but functional and physiological roles remained unclear. Here we characterized the functional relationship of AMPK with four different protein interaction partners: gluthatione S-transferases (GSTP1 and GSTM1), fumarate hydratase (FH), an E3 ubiquitin-ligase (NRDP1), and vesicle-associated membrane proteins (VAMP2 and VAMP3). Each of these interaction partners seems to have a different function in AMPK signaling, either acting up- or down-stream of AMPK. GSTP1 and GSTM1 can contribute to AMPK activation by facilitating S-glutathionylation of AMPK under mildly oxidative conditions. This non-canonical regulation suggests AMPK as a sensor of cellular redox state. Mitochondrial FH was identified as the only clear AMPK downstream substrate, but surprisingly the phosphorylation site is present in the mitochondrial targeting prepeptide, possibly affecting mitochondrial import. NRDP1, whose expression as a full-length soluble protein was achieved here for the first time, is phosphorylated by AMPK only at low levels. The interaction does neither serve for AMPK ubiquitinylation, but rather affects NRDP1 turnover. Finally, interaction of VAMP2/3 with AMPK does not involve phosphorylation or activation events of one of the partners. Instead, we propose VAMP2/3 as scaffolding proteins that recruit AMPK to exocytotic vesicles which could favor phosphorylation of vesicular AMPK substrates for exocytosis. Collectively, our results add some new elements to the AMPK signaling network, suggesting that it is much more complex than anticipated. In addition to upstream kinases and downstream substrates, regulation of AMPK signaling occurs by second

Implication de ROQUIN dans la physiopathologie du lymphome T angio-immunoblastique. Le T-LAI est un lymphome T périphérique qui de part sa rareté bénéficie de peu d'études contrairement aux lymphomes B. En France, le T-LAI est le PTCL le plus fréquemment rencontré. Malgré une évolution clinique variable, le T-LAI reste une tumeur agressive dont la survie globale est inférieure à 3 ans. Un des objectifs de notre équipe est donc de mieux comprendre la physiopathologie de ce lymphome et d'identifier des évènements oncogéniques conduisant à son développement. Dans le cadre de ce projet, notre étude s'est portée sur le gène ROQUIN qui code une E3 ubiquitine ligase de la famille RING et dont la mutation est associée à l'apparition d'un syndrome proche du T-LAI chez la souris sanroque.Bien que nous n'ayons détecté aucune mutation dans la séquence codante de ROQUIN nous avons identifié un nouveau transcrit alternatif appelé ROQUIN ØE17. Celui-ci code une protéine qui, comme la forme sauvage, se localise dans les granules de stress et les corps P et interagit avec certains ARNm et micro-ARN. Néanmoins il est le seul à inhiber l'expression de la molécule de costimulation ICOS. ROQUIN ØE17, qui est présent en concentrations variables dans les différentes populations lymphocytaires T n'est quasiment pas exprimé dans les T-LAI. De ce fait, la perte du transcrit ROQUIN ØE17 pourrait participer à la genèse et/ou développement de ce lymphome. / Implication of ROQUIN in the physiopathology of angio-immunoblastic T cell lymphoma. AITL is a peripheral T cell lymphoma, poorly studied compared to B cell lymphomas due to its rarity. In France, AITL is the PTCL the most frequently encountered. Despite a variable clinical course, AITL is an aggressive tumor with an overall survival lower than 3 years. One of our goal is to better understand the physiopathology of this lymphoma and identify oncogenic events that lead to its development. In this project, our study was focused on ROQUIN gene that encodes a RING E3 ubiquitin ligase and whose mutation induces an AITL-like syndrom in sanroque mice.Although we did not detect any mutation in ROQUIN coding sequence, we identified a novel alternative transcript referred as ROQUIN ØE17. It encodes a protein that, like wild type protein, localizes to stress granules and P bodies and interacts with mRNAs and microRNAs. However, only ROQUIN ØE17 inhibits the expression of the costimulatory molecule ICOS. This transcript, whose expression varies between T cell populations, is hardly expressed in AITL. Consequently, the loss of ROQUIN ØE17 could be involved in the genesis and/or development of this lymphoma.

The E3 ubiquitin ligase RNF43 (RING finger protein 43) is an important negative modulator of the WNT signalling pathway that acts at the plasma membrane by targeting Frizzled and its co-receptor LRP for degradation. In the small intestine, this prevents uncontrolled expansion of the stem cell compartment and so it is essential to the maintenance of normal tissue homeostasis. However, despite its crucial role in fine-tuning the WNT pathway and its role as a tumour suppressor, it is unclear whether RNF43 has further binding partners and what their functional relevance is to the modulation of WNT signalling. Here, I describe the development of a new screening strategy which combines CRISPR/Cas9 technology with 3D-intestinal organoid culture for the identification of novel molecular interactors of RNF43. Overall, this study and the technology developed provide a tool to enable the detailed description of the mechanism of action of RNF43, which is important not only in order to increase our understanding of WNT pathway regulation but also to gain potential new insights into RNF43 paralogs, by analogy. The investigation of paralogs is crucial as RNF43 belongs to a newly identified family of E3 ubiquitin ligases, named the PA-RING family, whose members are still poorly characterised. The majority of PA-RING family members have not been linked to any signalling pathway, most of their targets are still unknown and in many cases their in vivo function has not been addressed. In this context, my work has specifically focused on the investigation of the potential involvement of additional PA-RING family members in WNT pathway modulation and also on target identification for selected members. The results summarised in this dissertation show that no other PA-RING family member plays a prominent role in WNT pathway modulation aside from Rnf43 and its homologue Znrf3, however, different classes of adhesion molecules are likely to be regulated by certain of these E3 ligases. In conclusion, my work has contributed to unravelling previously unexplored aspects of this protein family, with particular regard to RNF43 and its mechanism of action. Thanks to this original approach, it was possible to identify potential new players involved either in membrane clearance of Frizzled or in RNF43 maturation. In particular, my thesis focuses on the characterisation of the role of DAAM in RNF43-mediated Frizzled internalisation.

The innate immune system is the first line of defence against pathogen invasion. The range of diseases that are caused by deficiencies in or deregulation of the innate immune system illustrates the importance of maintaining an effective balance between clearance of infectious agents and minimisation of inflammatory mediated tissue damage. This thesis explores the role of two proteins in the regulation of the innate immune system. Primarily, this work investigates the effect of human β-defensin 3 (hBD3) on the response to self-DNA and pathogenic DNA. HBD3 is an antimicrobial peptide (AMP), which has been shown to have a role in regulating the immune response; increased copy number of the region containing the gene for hBD3, DEFB103, is linked to an increased risk of psoriasis. Additionally, a similar cationic AMP, LL37, has been shown to exacerbate the pathogenesis of psoriasis by forming an immunogenic complex with self-DNA. This lead to the hypothesis that hBD3 may also affect the innate immune response to DNA. Therefore this project investigates what effect hBD3 has on the response of the innate immune system to self and pathogenic DNA. Flt-3 dendritic cells were used to show that whilst hBD3 increased cellular uptake of self-DNA, it did not convert self-DNA into an immune stimulus. However, hBD3 significantly exacerbated the response to bacterial DNA in a TLR9-dependent manner, also by increasing cellular uptake into FLDCs. The finding that hBD3 increased cellular uptake of both self- and pathogenic DNA suggests that at sites of infection or increased cell death, where DNA would be found in the extracellular environment, hBD3 may increase uptake into immune cells and could induce an increased immune response. Since increased hBD3 expression is induced by inflammatory stimuli, this process would cause a positive feedback loop of inflammation during bacterial infections. In conclusion, hBD3’s role in regulating the innate immune response to DNA is at the ligand-receptor level rather than affecting signalling pathways. Furthermore, hBD3 promotes the innate immune response to bacterial DNA by increasing the efficiency of cellular uptake possibly by inducing DNA aggregation. These results implicate a possible role for hBD3 in the earliest stages of psoriatic plaque development, which is often initiated or exacerbated by an infection, and this could be investigated further. Secondly, I investigated the innate immune function of an E3 ubiquitin ligase (E3L) not previously associated with human disease. Mutations in E3L have been identified in three microcephalic primordial dwarfism families; these patients also presented with recurrent respiratory illnesses. E3L has been implicated in the regulation of the innate immune system via interactions with signalling pathways downstream of the receptor, though its role is not clear. We hypothesised that E3L had a dual role both in regulating growth and cell division and in regulating the immune system. Primary patient fibroblasts did not demonstrate an altered cytokine response to bacterial or viral ligands, implying that E3L may have a specific function in immune cells. To investigate this further, and to provide a system to study E3L in vivo, two transgenic mouse lines were designed and engineered, firstly a conditional ‘knock-out’ designed to replicate some of the alternative isoforms of E3L seen in RT-PCRs, and secondly a ‘knock-in’ line to recapitulate the human mutation in exon 7 of E3L, R185X. These mouse lines should offer an insight into the developmental role for E3L, and contribute to establishing a potential role for E3L in the innate immune system. This thesis exemplifies the complexity of the innate immune system and the regulatory pathways that interact to maintain a delicate homeostasis preventing pathogenic inflammation. Understanding these regulatory mechanisms may shed light on the pathogenicity of diseases and identification of potential targets for therapeutics.

A via RAS/RAF/MEK/ERK é frequentemente hiperativada em diversos tumores. Em leucemias sua ativação pode ocorrer, dentre outros mecanismos, a partir de mutações pontuais nos genes da família RAS, que são relevantes nas leucemias linfóide e mielóide agudas (LLA e LMA), ou a partir da atividade da tirosina-quinase BCR-ABL, que é responsável por promover a tumorigênese na leucemia mielóide crônica (LMC) e em alguns casos de LLA. A hiperativação dessa via estimula a proliferação celular e, consequentemente, a produção de espécies reativas de oxigênio (ROS), que é um dos principais mecanismos envolvidos com a indução de senescência celular em tumores. Assim sendo, as células tumorais que apresentam o gene RAS mutado são criticamente dependentes de mecanismos de feedback para regular a ativação da via. Jang et al. demonstraram que a ubiquitina-ligase HUWE1 atua em um mecanismo de feedback negativo que controla a ativação de ERK1/2 e apesar de amplamente estudada no contexto da tumorigênese, a atuação dessa molécula em eventos relacionados à leucemogênese ainda não foi descrita. No presente estudo, linhagens celulares leucêmicas e células tronco e progenitoras hematopoiéticas humanas (HSPCs) com mutação KRASG12V foram transduzidas com partículas lentivirais miR-E para o silenciamento gênico de HUWE1. Ensaios de proliferação celular, apoptose, análise do ciclo celular, produção de ROS e análise da expressão gênica e proteica foram realizados nas linhagens celulares; análise do crescimento cumulativo, área de formação de cobblestones, capacidade clonogênica e análise do perfil de diferenciação celular foram realizados nas HSPCs. Nas linhagens celulares observouse que o silenciamento de HUWE1 reduziu a capacidade proliferativa das linhagens Nalm-6, K562 e THP-1, porém não causou nenhum prejuízo à capacidade proliferativa da linhagem HL-60. Além disso, causou a redução da produção de ROS (p<0,05), associada à redução das taxas de apoptose (p<0,01), principalmente na linhagem K562, na qual também promoveu a ativação de ERK1/2 . Em HSPCs, observou-se a redução da capacidade proliferativa das culturas que expressavam o oncogene KRASG12V associado ao silenciamento de HUWE1. Nas mesmas condições foi observada uma drástica redução na capacidade clonogênica das HSPCs (p<0,001), em especial as do tipo BFU-E. O silenciamento de HUWE1 também alterou o perfil de diferenciação celular para a linhagem monocítica. Os resultados sugerem que HUWE1 pode participar do processo de leucemogênese e diferenciação de HSPCs humanas participando na modulação da via RAS/RAF/MEK/ERK. / The RAS/RAF/MEK/ERK pathway is frequently hyperactivated in several tumors. In leukemia, this activation can arise, among other mechanisms, from point mutations in the RAS genes, which are important in acute lymphoid leukemia (ALL) and acute myeloid leukemia (AML), or from chromosomal translocations such as the BCR-ABL gene, which is a driver mutation in chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) and some cases of ALL. The hyperactivation of this pathway stimulates cell proliferation and, consequently, the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which is one of the main mechanisms involved with induction of cellular senescence in tumors. Thus, tumor cells that harbor the mutated RAS gene are critically dependent on feedback mechanisms to regulate pathway activation. Jang et al. demonstrated that the ubiquitinligase HUWE1 acts on a negative feedback mechanism that controls the activation of ERK1/2. Although widely studied in the context of tumorigenesis, the role of this molecule in events related to leukemogenesis has not yet been described. In this study, leukemia cell lines and human hematopoietic stem and progenitors cells (HSPCs) with KRASG12V mutation were transduced with miR-E lentiviral particles for HUWE1 knockdown. Cell proliferation, apoptosis, cell cycle analysis, ROS production and analysis of gene and protein expression were performed in cell lines; cumulative growth analysis, cobblestones area formations, clonogenic capacity and differentiation profile analysis were performed in HSPCs. In cell lines, it was observed that HUWE1 knockdown reduced the proliferative capacity of Nalm-6, K562 and THP-1, but not of HL-60. Besides that, it caused a reduction in ROS production (p<0,05), associated with reduction of apoptosis rates (p<0,01), especially in K562 in which it also promoted activation of ERK1/2. In HSPCs, a reduction of the proliferative capacity was observed in cultures expressing KRASG12V in combination with HUWE1 knockdown. In the same conditions, a drastic reduction of clonogenic capacity (p<0,001), especially of BFU-E colonies, was observed. HUWE1 knockdown also changed differentiation profile to the monocytic lineage. Results suggest that HUWE1 might play a role in leukemogenesis process and differentiation of human HSPCs, acting in the modulation of RAS/RAF/MEK/ERK.

A via RAS/RAF/MEK/ERK é frequentemente hiperativada em diversos tumores. Em leucemias sua ativação pode ocorrer, dentre outros mecanismos, a partir de mutações pontuais nos genes da família RAS, que são relevantes nas leucemias linfóide e mielóide agudas (LLA e LMA), ou a partir da atividade da tirosina-quinase BCR-ABL, que é responsável por promover a tumorigênese na leucemia mielóide crônica (LMC) e em alguns casos de LLA. A hiperativação dessa via estimula a proliferação celular e, consequentemente, a produção de espécies reativas de oxigênio (ROS), que é um dos principais mecanismos envolvidos com a indução de senescência celular em tumores. Assim sendo, as células tumorais que apresentam o gene RAS mutado são criticamente dependentes de mecanismos de feedback para regular a ativação da via. Jang et al. demonstraram que a ubiquitina-ligase HUWE1 atua em um mecanismo de feedback negativo que controla a ativação de ERK1/2 e apesar de amplamente estudada no contexto da tumorigênese, a atuação dessa molécula em eventos relacionados à leucemogênese ainda não foi descrita. No presente estudo, linhagens celulares leucêmicas e células tronco e progenitoras hematopoiéticas humanas (HSPCs) com mutação KRASG12V foram transduzidas com partículas lentivirais miR-E para o silenciamento gênico de HUWE1. Ensaios de proliferação celular, apoptose, análise do ciclo celular, produção de ROS e análise da expressão gênica e proteica foram realizados nas linhagens celulares; análise do crescimento cumulativo, área de formação de cobblestones, capacidade clonogênica e análise do perfil de diferenciação celular foram realizados nas HSPCs. Nas linhagens celulares observouse que o silenciamento de HUWE1 reduziu a capacidade proliferativa das linhagens Nalm-6, K562 e THP-1, porém não causou nenhum prejuízo à capacidade proliferativa da linhagem HL-60. Além disso, causou a redução da produção de ROS (p<0,05), associada à redução das taxas de apoptose (p<0,01), principalmente na linhagem K562, na qual também promoveu a ativação de ERK1/2 . Em HSPCs, observou-se a redução da capacidade proliferativa das culturas que expressavam o oncogene KRASG12V associado ao silenciamento de HUWE1. Nas mesmas condições foi observada uma drástica redução na capacidade clonogênica das HSPCs (p<0,001), em especial as do tipo BFU-E. O silenciamento de HUWE1 também alterou o perfil de diferenciação celular para a linhagem monocítica. Os resultados sugerem que HUWE1 pode participar do processo de leucemogênese e diferenciação de HSPCs humanas participando na modulação da via RAS/RAF/MEK/ERK. / The RAS/RAF/MEK/ERK pathway is frequently hyperactivated in several tumors. In leukemia, this activation can arise, among other mechanisms, from point mutations in the RAS genes, which are important in acute lymphoid leukemia (ALL) and acute myeloid leukemia (AML), or from chromosomal translocations such as the BCR-ABL gene, which is a driver mutation in chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) and some cases of ALL. The hyperactivation of this pathway stimulates cell proliferation and, consequently, the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which is one of the main mechanisms involved with induction of cellular senescence in tumors. Thus, tumor cells that harbor the mutated RAS gene are critically dependent on feedback mechanisms to regulate pathway activation. Jang et al. demonstrated that the ubiquitinligase HUWE1 acts on a negative feedback mechanism that controls the activation of ERK1/2. Although widely studied in the context of tumorigenesis, the role of this molecule in events related to leukemogenesis has not yet been described. In this study, leukemia cell lines and human hematopoietic stem and progenitors cells (HSPCs) with KRASG12V mutation were transduced with miR-E lentiviral particles for HUWE1 knockdown. Cell proliferation, apoptosis, cell cycle analysis, ROS production and analysis of gene and protein expression were performed in cell lines; cumulative growth analysis, cobblestones area formations, clonogenic capacity and differentiation profile analysis were performed in HSPCs. In cell lines, it was observed that HUWE1 knockdown reduced the proliferative capacity of Nalm-6, K562 and THP-1, but not of HL-60. Besides that, it caused a reduction in ROS production (p<0,05), associated with reduction of apoptosis rates (p<0,01), especially in K562 in which it also promoted activation of ERK1/2. In HSPCs, a reduction of the proliferative capacity was observed in cultures expressing KRASG12V in combination with HUWE1 knockdown. In the same conditions, a drastic reduction of clonogenic capacity (p<0,001), especially of BFU-E colonies, was observed. HUWE1 knockdown also changed differentiation profile to the monocytic lineage. Results suggest that HUWE1 might play a role in leukemogenesis process and differentiation of human HSPCs, acting in the modulation of RAS/RAF/MEK/ERK.

An intact cellular response to DNA damage is important for the maintenance of genomic stability and tumour prevention. EDD, the human orthologue of Drosophila melanogaster ???hyperplastic discs???, is over-expressed or mutated in a number of common human cancers. EDD is a progestin regulated gene that encodes an E3 ubiquitin ligase involved in cell communication and cell adhesion, and although it has also been implicated in the DNA damage response through its association with DNA damage proteins, a definitive role has yet to be demonstrated. The work presented herein shows that EDD is necessary for an adequate cellular response to double-strand DNA breaks. Cells depleted of EDD exhibit reduced survival, radio-resistant DNA synthesis and failure to maintain G2/M arrest following DNA damage induced by phleomycin exposure. Furthermore, EDD-depleted cells display impaired activating phosphorylation and kinase activity of the checkpoint kinase CHK2 after DNA damage. These effects appear to be largely modulated through a phospho-dependent interaction involving the CHK2 FHA domain and a region of EDD spanning a number of putative FHA-binding threonines. These results identify EDD as a novel mediator in DNA damage signal transduction via CHK2 and emphasise the potential importance of EDD in cancer.

An intact cellular response to DNA damage is important for the maintenance of genomic stability and tumour prevention. EDD, the human orthologue of Drosophila melanogaster ???hyperplastic discs???, is over-expressed or mutated in a number of common human cancers. EDD is a progestin regulated gene that encodes an E3 ubiquitin ligase involved in cell communication and cell adhesion, and although it has also been implicated in the DNA damage response through its association with DNA damage proteins, a definitive role has yet to be demonstrated. The work presented herein shows that EDD is necessary for an adequate cellular response to double-strand DNA breaks. Cells depleted of EDD exhibit reduced survival, radio-resistant DNA synthesis and failure to maintain G2/M arrest following DNA damage induced by phleomycin exposure. Furthermore, EDD-depleted cells display impaired activating phosphorylation and kinase activity of the checkpoint kinase CHK2 after DNA damage. These effects appear to be largely modulated through a phospho-dependent interaction involving the CHK2 FHA domain and a region of EDD spanning a number of putative FHA-binding threonines. These results identify EDD as a novel mediator in DNA damage signal transduction via CHK2 and emphasise the potential importance of EDD in cancer.

Η αποικοδόμηση των πρωτεϊνών είναι μια διαδικασία απαραίτητη για τη διατήρηση της ομοιόστασης του κυττάρου. Ένας από τους κύριους μηχανισμούς αποικοδόμησης των βραχύβιων πρωτεϊνών καθώς και όσων εμφανίζουν λανθασμένη αναδίπλωση, χωρεί μέσω του μονοπατιού ουβικιτίνης- πρωτεασώματος. Η ουβικιτινίωση είναι μια μετα-μεταφραστική διαδικασία, η οποία έγκειται στη σηματοδότηση των υποψήφιων για αποικοδόμηση πρωτεϊνών με ουβικιτίνη και περιλαμβάνει τρεις ενζυμικές ενεργότητες: Ε1 (εκκινητής ουβικιτίνης), Ε2(μεταφορέας ουβικιτίνης) και Ε3 (λιγάση ουβικιτίνης). Η πρωτεΐνη Arkadia (Rnf11) είναι μια Ε3 λιγάση ουβικιτίνης με συνολικό μήκος 994 αμινοξέα. Σε μοριακό επίπεδο, ενισχύει το TGF-β σηματοδοτικό μονοπάτι, διαμεσολαβώντας την εξαρτώμενη από το πρωτεάσωμα αποικοδόμηση των αρνητικών ρυθμιστών του, c-Ski και Sno-N. Η δραστικότητα Ε3 λιγάσης ουβικιτίνης εδράζεται στον C΄-τελικό RING-H2 τομέα, που σχηματίζεται από τα τελευταία 60 περίπου αμινοξέα της ακολουθίας. Η δομή και η σταθερότητα του RING τομέα εξαρτώνται από την πρόσδεση δύο ιόντων Zn μέσω ενός χαρακτηριστικού μοτίβου, που περιλαμβάνει 6 κυστεϊνικά και 2 ιστιδινικά κατάλοιπα. Στην προσπάθεια αποσαφήνισης της σχέσης δομής-δράσης της πρωτεΐνης Arkadia, ένα από τα κατάλοιπα που συναρμόζονται με Zn -συγκεκριμένα η His965- αντικαταστάθηκε από κυστεΐνη μέσω κατευθυνόμενης μεταλλαξιγένεσης. Η μετάλλαξη αυτή, με την οποία, ουσιαστικά, μετατρέψαμε τον RING-H2 σε RING-HC τομέα, μελετήθηκε με χρήση πολυπυρηνικής/πολυδιάστατης φασματοσκοπίας πυρηνικού μαγνητικού συντονισμού (NMR). H NMR δομή του RING-H2 τομέα της Η965C Arkadia επιλύθηκε σε υψηλή διακριτικότητα (tf=0.94±7.53*10-2, RMSD=0.75±0.20 και RMSD=1.45±0.24 για τα άτομα του πολυπεπτιδικού σκελετού και τα βαρέα άτομα αντίστοιχα) και αποκάλυψε μια ββαββ τοπολογία. Παράλληλα, πραγματοποιήθηκε μελέτη κινητικότητας, από την οποία προέκυψε ότι η εν λόγω μετάλλαξη υφίσταται ως μονομερές και διαθέτει έναν συμπαγή πυρήνα, που περικλείεται μεταξύ δύο ευκίνητων άκρων. / Protein degradation is necessary for the maintenance of cell homeostasis. A major mechanism for the degradation of short-lived as well as misfolded proteins involves the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway. Ubiquitination is a post translational modification, which targets the proteins to be degraded through the covalent attachment of a ubiquitin tag and consists of three enzyme activities: Ε1 (ubiquitin activator), E2 (ubiquitin carrier) and E3 (ubiquitin ligase). Arkadia (Rnf11) is a 994 amino acid protein, which acts as an E3 ubiquitin ligase. On a molecular level, Arkadia enhances TGF-β signaling by mediating the proteasome-dependent degradation of its negative regulators, c-Ski and Sno-N. Its E3 ubiquitin ligase activity lies on a C΄-terminal RING-H2 domain, formed by the last 60 residues. The structure as well as stability of the RING finger domain depend strongly on the binding of two zinc ions in a unique ΄΄cross-brace΄΄ arrangement through a defined motif of six cysteines and two histidines. Trying to elucidate the structure-activity relationship in the case of Arkadia, one of the amino acid ligands –specifically His965- was replaced by cysteine through site-directed mutagenesis. This particular mutation, which, in reality, transformed the RING-H2 to a RING-HC domain, was studied with the use of multinuclear/multidimensional nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR). The NMR solution structure of the H965 Arkadia RING-H2 domain was determined in high resolution (tf=0.94±7.53*10-2, RMSD=0.75±0.20 και RMSD=1.45±0.24 for backbone and heavy atoms respectively) and revealed a ββαββ topology. Furthermore, a mobility study was conducted with the following results: the mutated protein is not expected to form dimers and shows a compact core region including the four metal binding motifs flanked by two flexibly disordered termini.

Le virus de l’immunodéficience humaine de type 1 (VIH-1), l’agent étiologique du SIDA, est un rétrovirus complexe arborant plusieurs protéines accessoires : Nef, Vif, Vpr, et Vpu. Celles-ci sont impliquées dans la modulation de la réplication virale, dans l’évasion immunitaire et dans la progression de la pathogenèse du SIDA. Dans ce contexte, il a été démontré que la protéine virale R (Vpr) induit un arrêt de cycle cellulaire en phase G2. Le mécanisme par lequel Vpr exerce cette fonction est l’activation, ATR (Ataxia telangiectasia and Rad3 related)-dépendante, du point de contrôle de dommage à l’ADN, mais les facteurs et mécanismes moléculaires directement impliqués dans cette activité demeurent inconnus. Afin d’identifier de nouveaux facteurs cellulaires interagissant avec Vpr, nous avons utilisé une purification d’affinité en tandem (TAP) pour isoler des complexes protéiques natifs contenant Vpr. Nous avons découvert que Vpr s’associait avec CRL4A(VprBP), un complexe cellulaire d’E3 ubiquitine ligase, comprenant les protéines Cullin 4A, DDB1 (DNA damage-binding protein 1) et VprBP (Vpr-binding protein). Nos études ont mis en évidence que le recrutement de la E3 ligase par Vpr était nécessaire mais non suffisant pour l’induction de l’arrêt de cycle cellulaire en G2, suggérant ainsi que des événements additionnels seraient impliqués dans ce processus. À cet égard, nous apportons des preuves directes que Vpr détourne les fonctions de CRL4A(VprBP) pour induire la polyubiquitination de type K48 et la dégradation protéosomale de protéines cellulaires encore inconnues. Ces événements d’ubiquitination induits par Vpr ont été démontrés comme étant nécessaire à l’activation d’ATR. Finalement, nous montrons que Vpr forme des foyers ancrés à la chromatine co-localisant avec VprBP ainsi qu’avec des facteurs impliqués dans la réparation de l’ADN. La formation de ces foyers représente un événement essentiel et précoce dans l’induction de l’arrêt de cycle cellulaire en G2. Enfin, nous démontrons que Vpr est capable de recruter CRL4A(VprBP) au niveau de la chromatine et nous apportons des preuves indiquant que le substrat inconnu ciblé par Vpr est une protéine associée à la chromatine. Globalement, nos résultats révèlent certains des ménanismes par lesquels Vpr induit des perturbations du cycle cellulaire. En outre, cette étude contribue à notre compréhension de la modulation du système ubiquitine-protéasome par le VIH-1 et son implication fonctionnelle dans la manipulation de l’environnement cellulaire de l’hôte. / Human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV-1), the etiologic agent of AIDS, is a complex retrovirus with several accessory proteins. HIV-1 accessory proteins Nef, Vif, Vpr, and Vpu have been implicated in the modulation of viral replication, enhancement of viral fitness, immune evasion, and progression of AIDS pathogenesis. In that regard, viral protein R (Vpr) induces a cell cycle arrest in the G2 phase by activating the canonical ATR (Ataxia telangiectasia and Rad3 related)-mediated DNA damage checkpoint, but cellular factors and mechanisms directly engaged in this process remain unknown. To identify novel Vpr-interacting cellular factors, we used tandem affinity purification (TAP) to isolate native Vpr-containing complexes. We found that Vpr hijacks a cellular E3 ubiquitin ligase complex, CRL4A(VprBP), composed of Cullin 4A, DDB1 (DNA damage-binding protein 1) and VprBP (Vpr-binding protein). Moreover, we observed that recruitment of the E3 ligase by Vpr was necessary but not sufficient for the induction of G2 cell cycle arrest, suggesting that additional events are involved. In this context, we provide direct evidence that Vpr usurps the function of CRL4A(VprBP) to induce the K48-linked polyubiquitination and proteasomal degradation of as-yet-unknown cellular proteins. These ubiquitination events mediated by Vpr were necessary for the activation of ATR. Moreover, we show that Vpr forms chromatin-associated foci that co-localize with VprBP and DNA repair factors. Our data indicate that formation of these foci represent a critical early event in the induction of G2 arrest. Finally, we show that Vpr is able to recruit CRL4A(VprBP) on chromatin and we provide evidence that the unknown substrate targeted by Vpr is a chromatin-associated protein. Overall, our results reveal some of the mechanisms by which Vpr induces cell cycle perturbations. Furthermore, this study contributes to our understanding of the modulation of the ubiquitin-proteasome system by HIV-1 and its functional implication in the manipulation of the host cellular environment.