Akustiska kanaler för undervattenskommunikation är flervägskanaler där ljudet reflekteras från havets yta och botten och bryts vid ljudhastighetsförändringar. I grunt vatten är impulssvaret långt jämfört med symbolernas tidslängd i ett utskickat meddelande. Detta orsakar intersymbolinterferens, vilket gör det svårt att återskapa meddelandet. Denna avhandling behandlar fysikalisk modellering av kommunikationskanalen. Sådan modellering kan öka insikten om de svårigheter som finns vid design av kommunikationssystem och kan vara till hjälp vid utveckling av lämpliga modulationstekniker och avkodningsalgoritmer. Ljudutbredningen simuleras med en strålgångsmetod med reflektionskoefficienter beräknade för plana vågor. I artikel 4 och 5 utvidgas modellen till en algoritm för gaussisk strålsummation. De viktigaste vetenskapliga bidragen är följande. Artikel 1: Aktuell kunskap om impulssvaret hos kommunikationskanalen gör det betydligt lättare att tolka det mottagna meddelandet. I denna artikel studeras tidsvariabiliteten hos impulssvaret i termer av bitfelssannolikhet när ett gammalt impulssvar används för kanalutjämning. Tidsvariabiliteten visar sig variera avsevärt med mottagarpositionen, inte bara när det gäller avståndet till sändaren, utan även när det gäller placeringen i djupled. Artikel 2: En hybridmetod presenteras, där strålgång i ett avståndsberoende medium kombineras med lokal fullfältsmodellering av interaktionen med havsbottnen. Metoden används för simuleringar av akustisk kommunikation i grunt vatten. Artikel 3: För att kunna göra tillförlitliga simuleringar av ljudutbredning behöver man god kunskap om mediets ljudhastighetsprofil --- information som inte alltid är tillgänglig. I denna artikel används den hybrida strålgångsmetoden från artikel 2 för att skatta ljudhastighetsprofilen från kommunikationsdata. Miljöparametrarna som beräknats genom inversionen minskar avvikelsen mellan simulerade och observerade skattningar av impulssvaret jämfört med avvikelsen då en uppmätt, två dagar gammal ljudhastighetsprofil används vid simuleringen. Miljömodellen används också för en genomgång av alternativa käll- och mottagarpositioner. Artikel 4: Gaussisk strålsummation är en vågutbredningsmodell som liknar strålgång men kan ge korrekta resultat i strålgångens singulära områden, som skuggzoner och kaustikor. I denna artikel diskuteras hur några olika val av den komplexa strålparametern $\epsilon$ fungerar i grunda vågledare. Bäst resultat erhålls om man väljer $\epsilon$ så att strålen blir smal i punkten närmast mottagaren och får en plan vågfront där. Artikel 5: En adaptiv metod för gaussisk strålsummation i grunda vågledare presenteras. Algoritmen ger en noggrannhet som är bättre än eller minst lika bra som strålgångens, även i grunda vågledare med en starkt djupberoende ljudhastighet. / Acoustic underwater communication channels are multipath channels where sound is reflected from the surface and the bottom of the sea and refracted by sound speed variations. In shallow water, the impulse response is typically long compared to the time length of the symbols in a transmitted message. This causes inter-symbol interference, which makes the message difficult to decode. This thesis deals with physical modelling of the communication channel. Such modelling can provide insight into the difficulties of communication system design and may serve as an aid in the development of appropriate modulation techniques and decoding algorithms. The sound propagation is simulated by a ray tracing method with plane-wave reflection coefficients, in papers 4 and 5 expanded to a Gaussian beam summation algorithm. The main scientific contributions are the following. Paper 1: Up-to-date knowledge of the impulse response of the communication channel considerably simplifies the extraction of information from a detected signal. In this paper the time variability of the impulse response is studied in terms of the bit-error rate, when an old impulse response is used for channel equalisation. The time variability is found to vary significantly with the receiver position, not only in range, but also in depth. Paper 2: A hybrid raytrace method is presented, combining ray tracing in a range-dependent water column with local full-field modelling of the seabed interaction. The method is applied to simulations of acoustic communication in shallow water. Paper 3: To be able to make reliable simulations of sound propagation, one needs to know, quite accurately, the sound speed profile of the medium --- information which is not always available. In this paper the hybrid raytrace method from paper 2 is used to estimate the sound speed profile from communication data. The environmental model obtained by the inversion reduces the mismatch between the modelled and the observed impulse response estimates, compared to the mismatch with a two-days-old sound speed profile. The model is also used to investigate alternative source-receiver configurations. Paper 4: Gaussian beam summation is a wave propagation model similar to ray tracing, which can yield correct results in singular regions like shadow zones and caustic points. In this paper some different choices of the complex beam parameter $\epsilon$ are discussed for shallow waveguides. Best results are observed when $\epsilon$ is chosen so that each beam is narrow at the point where it is closest to the receiver and has a plane wavefront there. Paper 5: An adaptive method for Gaussian beam summation in shallow waveguides is presented. The algorithm yields better or at least as good accuracy as ray tracing, even in shallow waveguides with a strongly depth-dependent sound speed profile. / QC 20100819

O Monitoramento Acústico Passivo (PAM) submarino refere-se ao uso de sistemas de escuta e gravação subaquática, com o intuito de detectar, monitorar e identificar fontes sonoras através das ondas de pressão que elas produzem. Se diz que é passivo já que tais sistemas unicamente ouvem, sem perturbam o meio ambiente acústico existente, diferentemente de ativos, como os sonares. O PAM submarino tem diversas áreas de aplicação, como em sistemas de vigilância militar, seguridade portuária, monitoramento ambiental, desenvolvimento de índices de densidade populacional de espécies, identificação de espécies, etc. Tecnologia nacional nesta área é praticamente inexistente apesar da sua importância. Neste contexto, o presente trabalho visa contribuir com o desenvolvimento de tecnologia nacional no tema através da concepção, construção e operação de equipamento autônomo de PAM e de métodos de processamento de sinais para detecção automatizada de eventos acústicos submarinos. Foi desenvolvido um equipamento, nomeado OceanPod, que possui características como baixo custo de fabrica¸c~ao, flexibilidade e facilidade de configuração e uso, voltado para a pesquisa científica, industrial e para controle ambiental. Vários protótipos desse equipamento foram construídos e utilizados em missões no mar. Essas jornadas de monitoramento permitiram iniciar a criação de um banco de dados acústico, o qual permitiu fornecer a matéria prima para o teste de detectores de eventos acústicos automatizados e em tempo real. Adicionalmente também é proposto um novo método de detecção-identificação de eventos acústicos, baseado em análise estatística da representação tempo-frequência dos sinais acústicos. Este novo método foi testado na detecção de cetáceos, presentes no banco de dados gerado pelas missões de monitoramento. / Passive Acoustic Monitoring (PAM) refers to the use of systems to listen and record underwater soundscape, in order to detect, track and identify sound sources through the pressure waves that they produce. It is said to be passive as these systems only hear, not put noise in the environment, such as sonars. Underwater PAM has various application areas, such as military surveillance systems, port security, environmental monitoring, development of population density rates of species, species identification, etc. National technology in the field is practically nonexistent despite its importance. In this context, this paper aims to contribute to the national technology development in the field by designing, building, and operating a self-contained PAM equipment, also developing signal-processing methods for automated detection of underwater acoustic events. A device, named \"OceanPod\"which has characteristics such as low manufacturing cost, flexibility and ease of setup and use, intended for scientific, industrial research and environmental control was developed. Several prototypes of the equipment were built and used in several missions at seawaters. These missions monitoring, enabled start creating an acoustic database, which provided the raw material for the automated acoustic events detectors and realtime test. Additionally, it is also proposed a new method of detecting, identifying sound events, based on statistical analysis of the time-frequency representation of the acoustic signals. This new method has been tested in the detection of cetaceans present in the database generated by missions monitoring.

In marine environments, acoustic wave propagation is determined by sound-speed variations in the water column (related to salinity, temperature and pressure) ,and seafloor properties in shallow environments. The refraction index variations and the boundary conditions guide the wave propagation so that an important amount of acoustic energy can propagate over long distances. Measurements of acoustic transmissions coupled with propagation models can be inverted to infer the water column properties (tomography) and the seafloor and subseafloor properties (geoacoustics).<p><p>In this thesis a new method for shallow water inversion based on the sequential assimilation of acoustic measurements in Kalman filters is developed. Filtering algorithms for nonlinear systems, as the ensemble Kalman filter (EnKF), enable the integration of complex acoustic propagation models in the measurement model. The inverse problem is here reformulated into a state-space model to track sequentially the parameters (temperature, receiver positions, etc.) and their uncertainty by filtering regularly new acoustic data.<p><p>Different applications are proposed to demonstrate the sequential acoustic filtering approach. First, the problem of characterizing horizontal inhomogeneities in the sound-speed field between an acoustic source and a vertical array of receivers is addressed. Starting from a range-averaged sound-speed profile, the filtering of complex multifrequency data enables the estimate and tracking of the range-dependence of the sound-speed field.<p>The second application deals with the geoacoustic inversion problem based on a mobile source-receiver setup. The filtering approach is shown to provide more stable results than conventional inversion methods with a reduced computational burden. The last application is dedicated to the tracking of specific oceanic structures affecting the sound-speed field, here thermal fronts. An original parameterization scheme which is specific to the tracked feature is developed and enables to monitor the principal characteristics of the sound-speed field by filtering multifrequency acoustic data.<p><p>This work shows that the sequential filtering approach of transmitted acoustic data can lead to environmental estimates on spatial and temporal scale of interest for regional or coastal oceanographic models and can supplement the dataset assimilated nowadays for forecasting purposes./Dans les environnements marins, la propagation des ondes acoustiques est directement conditionnée par les variations de vitesse de propagation dans l'eau (liée à la température, la salinité et la pression hydrostatique), ainsi que les propriétés du fond, lorsque le milieu est peu profond. La propagation de ces ondes, typiquement guidée par les variations d'indice de réfraction et les conditions aux limites, permet de transmettre une quantité d'énergie acoustique importante sur de longues distances. Associées à des modèles de propagation, des mesures de transmission acoustique peuvent être inversées afin de déterminer les propriétés de l'environnement sondé, que ce soit de la colonne d'eau (tomographie) ou du fond marin (géoacoustique).<p><p>Dans cette thèse, une nouvelle méthode d'inversion en milieu peu profond, basée sur l'assimilation séquentielle de mesures acoustiques dans des filtres de Kalman, est développée. Les algorithmes de filtrage développés pour les systèmes non linéaires, tel que l'ensemble Kalman filter (EnKF), permettent d'intégrer des modèles de propagation acoustique complexes au sein du modèle de mesure. Le problème inverse est reformulé de façon séquentielle, en un modèle d'espace d'états, de sorte que l'évolution des paramètres (température, positions des récepteurs, etc.) et de leur incertitude est suivie au fur et à mesure de l'assimilation de nouvelles mesures.<p><p>Différentes applications sont proposées pour démontrer les performances du filtrage séquentiel. Le premier problème abordé est celui de l'inversion et du suivi des inhomogénéités horizontales du champ de vitesse entre une source acoustique et une antenne verticale de récepteurs. A partir d'un profil de vitesse moyen sur la distance source-récepteurs, le filtrage de mesures complexes multi-fréquences permet d'estimer la dépendance horizontale du champ de vitesse et son évolution au cours du temps. La nature séquentielle de l'algorithme de filtrage motive la seconde application, dédiée à l'estimation des paramètres géoacoustiques d'un environnement à partir d'une configuration source-récepteur mobile. Les résultats démontrent que l'approche par filtrage permet d'obtenir des estimations géoacoustiques plus stables que celles obtenues par les méthodes d'inversion conventionnelles avec un coût de calcul réduit. La troisième et dernière application est dédiée au suivi de structures océaniques marquées, tels que les fronts thermiques. Une paramétrisation originale spécifique à la structure inversée est proposée et permet d'estimer et de suivre les caractéristiques principales du champ de température par filtrage de données acoustiques multi-fréquences.<p><p>Ce travail montre que l'approche séquentielle de l'inversion des données acoustiques peut mener à des estimations environnementales sur des échelles spatiales et temporelles d'intérêt pour les modèles océanographiques côtiers et régionaux, de façon à compléter les données assimilées quotidiennement pour les prédictions. / Doctorat en Sciences / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Originally developed in the 1970s for the optimal control of systems governed by partial differential equations, the adjoint method has found several successful applications, e.g. in meteorology with large-scale 3D or 4D atmospheric data assimilation schemes, for carbon cycle data assimilation in biogeochemistry and climate research, or in oceanographic modelling with efficient adjoint codes of ocean general circulation models.<p><p>Despite the variety of applications in these research fields, adjoint methods have only very recently drawn attention from the ocean acoustics community. In ocean acoustic tomography and geoacoustic inversion, where the inverse problem is to recover unknown acoustic properties of the water column and the seabed from acoustic transmission data, the solution approaches are typically based on travel time inversion or standard matched-field processing in combination with metaheuristics for global optimization. <p><p>In order to complement the adjoint schemes already in use in meteorology and oceanography with an ocean acoustic component, this thesis is concerned with the development of the adjoint of a full-field acoustic propagation model for shallow water environments. <p><p>In view of the increasing importance of global ocean observing systems such as the European Seas Observatory Network, the Arctic Ocean Observing System and Maritime Rapid Environmental Assessment (MREA) systems for defence and security applications, the adjoint of an ocean acoustic propagation model can become an integral part of a coupled oceanographic and acoustic data assimilation scheme in the future. <p><p>Given the acoustic pressure field measured on a vertical hydrophone array and a modelled replica field that is calculated for a specific parametrization of the environment, the developed adjoint model backpropagates the mismatch (residual) between the measured and predicted field from the receiver array towards the source.<p><p>The backpropagated error field is then converted into an estimate of the exact gradient of the objective function with respect to any of the relevant physical parameters of the environment including the sound speed structure in the water column and densities, compressional/shear sound speeds, and attenuations of the sediment layers and the sub-bottom halfspace. The resulting environmental gradients can be used in combination with gradient descent methods such as conjugate gradient, or Newton-type optimization methods tolocate the error surface minimum via a series of iterations. This is particularly attractive for monitoring slowly varying environments, where the gradient information can be used to track the environmental parameters continuously over time and space.<p><p>In shallow water environments, where an accurate treatment of the acoustic interaction with the bottom is of outmost importance for a correct prediction of the sound field, and field data are often recorded on non-fully populated arrays, there is an inherent need for observation over a broad range of frequencies. For this purpose, the adjoint-based approach is generalized for a joint optimization across multiple frequencies and special attention is devoted to regularization methods that incorporate additional information about the desired solution in order to stabilize the optimization process.<p><p>Starting with an analytical formulation of the multiple-frequency adjoint approach for parabolic-type approximations, the adjoint method is progressively tailored in the course of the thesis towards a realistic wide-angle parabolic equation propagation model and the treatment of fully nonlocal impedance boundary conditions. A semi-automatic adjoint generation via modular graph approach enables the direct inversion of both the geoacoustic parameters embedded in the discrete nonlocal boundary condition and the acoustic properties of the water column. Several case studies based on environmental data obtained in Mediterranean shallow waters are used in the thesis to assess the capabilities of adjoint-based acoustic inversion for different experimental configurations, particularly taking into account sparse array geometries and partial depth coverage of the water column. The numerical implementation of the approach is found to be robust, provided that the initial guesses are not too far from the desired solution, and accurate, and converges in a small number of iterations. During the multi-frequency optimization process, the evolution of the control parameters displays a parameter hierarchy which clearly relates to the relative sensitivity of the acoustic pressure field to the physical parameters. <p><p>The actual validation of the adjoint-generated environmental gradients for acoustic monitoring of a shallow water environment is based on acoustic and oceanographic data from the Yellow Shark '94 and the MREA '07 sea trials, conducted in the Tyrrhenian Sea, south of the island of Elba.<p> <p>Starting from an initial guess of the environmental control parameters, either obtained through acoustic inversion with global search or supported by archival in-situ data, the adjoint method provides an efficient means to adjust local changes with a couple of iterations and monitor the environmental properties over a series of inversions. <p><p>In this thesis the adjoint-based approach is used, e.g. to fine-tune up to eight bottom geoacoustic parameters of a shallow-water environment and to track the time-varying sound speed profile in the water column. <p><p>In the same way the approach can be extended to track the spatial water column and bottom structure using a mobile network of sparse arrays.<p><p>Work is currently being focused on the inclusion of the adjoint approach into hybrid optimization schemes or ensemble predictions, as an essential building block in a combined ocean acoustic data assimilation framework and the subsequent validation of the acoustic monitoring capabilities with long-term experimental data in shallow water environments. / Doctorat en Sciences de l'ingénieur / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Cette thèse est consacrée à l'étude de la localisation d'objets enfouis dans acoustiques sous-marins en utilisant les méthodes de traitement d'antenne et les ondes acoustiques. Nous avons proposé un modèle bien adapté en tenant compte le phénomène physique au niveau de l'interface eau/sédiment. La modélisation de la propagation combine donc la contribution de l'onde réfléchie et celle de l'onde réfractée pour déterminer un nouveau vecteur directionnel. Le vecteur directionnel élaboré à partir des modèles de diffusion acoustique est utilisé dans la méthode MUSIC au lieu d'utiliser le modèle d'onde plane habituel. Cette approche permet d'estimer à la fois coordonnées d'objets (angle et distance objet-capteur) de forme connue, quel que soit leur emplacement vis à vis de l'antenne, en champ proche ou en champ lointain. Nous remplaçons l'étape de décomposition en éléments propres par des algorithmes plus rapides. Nous développons un algorithme d'optimisation plus élaboré consiste à combiner l'algorithme DIRECT (DIviding RECTangles) avec une interpolation de type Spline, ceci permet de faire face au cas d'antennes distordues à grand nombre de capteurs, tout en conservant un temps de calcul faible. Les signaux reçus sont des signaux issus de ce même capteur, réfléchis et réfractés par les objets et sont donc forcément corrélés. Pour cela, nous d'abord utilisons un opérateur bilinéaire. Puis nous proposons une méthode pour le cas de groupes indépendants de signaux corrélés en utilisant les cumulants. Ensuit nous présentons une méthode en utilisant la matrice tranche cumulants pour éliminer du bruit Gaussien. Mais dans la pratique, le bruit n'est pas toujours gaussien ou ses caractéristiques ne sont pas toujours connues. Nous développons deux méthodes itératives pour estimer la matrice interspectrale du bruit. Le premier algorithme est basé sur une technique d'optimisation permettant d'extraire itérativement la matrice interspectrale du bruit de la matrice interspectrale des observations. Le deuxième algorithme utilise la technique du maximum de vraisemblance pour estimer conjointement les paramètres du signal et du bruit. Enfin nous testons les algorithmes proposés avec des données expérimentales et les performances des résultats sont très bonnes. / This thesis is devoted to the study of the localization of objects buried in underwater acoustic using array processing methods and acoustic waves. We have proposed a appropriate model, taking into account the water/sediment interface. The propagation modeling thus combines the reflected wave and the refracted wave to determine a new directional vector. The directional vector developed by acoustic scattering model is used in the MUSIC method instead of the classical plane wave model. This approach can estimate both of the object coordinates (angle and distance sensor-object) of known form, in near field or far field. We propose some fast algorithms without eigendecompostion. We combine DIRECT algorithm with spline interpolation to cope with the distorted antennas of many sensors, while maintaining a low computation time. To decorrelate the received signals, we firstly use a bilinear operator. We propose a method for the case of independent groups of correlated signals using the cumulants. Then we present a method using the cumulants matrix to eliminate Gaussian noise. But in practice, the noise is not always Gaussian or the characteristics are not always known. We develope two iterative methods to estimate the interspectral matrix of noise. The first algorithm is based on an optimization technique to extract iteratively the interspectral matrix of noise. The second algorithm uses the technique of maximum likelihood to estimate the signal parameters and the noise. Finally we test the proposed algorithms with experimental data. The results quality is very good.

Modeling underwater acoustic propagation comes with a variety of challenges due to the need for proper characterization of the environmental conditions. These conditions include ever changing and complex water properties as well as boundary conditions. The BYU underwater acoustics open-air tank test-bed and measurement chain were developed to study underwater acoustic propagation within a controlled environment. It was also developed to provide ways to test and validate ocean models without the high cost associated with obtaining open ocean measurements. However, tank measurements require additional characterization of boundary conditions associated with the walls of the tank which would not be present in an open ocean. The characterization of BYU's underwater acoustic tank included measuring the calibrated impulse response of the tank through frequency deconvolution of sine swept signals in order to determine the frequency dependent reverberation time through reverse Schroeder integration. The reverberation time allows for calculating the frequency dependent spatially averaged acoustic absorption coefficient of the tank enclosure boundaries. The methods used for this study, common to room acoustics, also yield insights into the Schroeder frequency limit of the tank as well as validate models used for quantifying the speed of sound in the tank. The acoustic characterization was validated alongside predicted values and also applied to a tank lined with anechoic panels in order to improve the potential for modeling the tank as a scaled open ocean environment. An initial investigation into effective tank models evaluated the idealized rigid-wall and pressure-release water-air boundary model, a finite-impedance boundary model applying the measured acoustic boundary absorption and a benchmark open ocean model known as ORCA in order to determine potential tank model candidates. This study demonstrates the efficacy of the methodology for underwater acoustic tank characterization, provides a frequency dependent acoustic boundary evaluation from 5-500 kHz, and provides an initial comparison of tank models with applied characterization.

The main aim of this thesis was to investigate the occurrence of dolphins in Pacific waters adjacent to the Panama Canal in the context of biological, temporal and spatial factors. Acoustic data were collected at 101 sites at a range of distances and depths from the shipping region. Data were collected between March 2010 and April 2011 in a diurnal cycle over a total of 114 recording days. Received sound levels were split into 1/3 Octave bandwidths to study variation in sound pressure levels and then converted to spectrum density levels to show the sound components of the background noise in this region. Generalised Linear Models were used to relate dolphin whistle detections to temporal, spatial, environmental and acoustic variables. The major sources of background noise were biological noise from soniferous fish and snapping shrimp and anthropogenic noise from vessels characterised by mid to high frequencies produced by artisanal fishing boats. There was monthly and diurnal variation with some locations characterised by loud sounds in the mid to high frequencies at night. Whistle characteristics analysis revealed that the frequencies and range of the whistles were different to those previously reported under similar conditions. Whistles varied diurnally and in the presence of fish chorus and fishing boats. The study highlights a strong correlation between fish choruses and whistle detection. Temporal and spatial models showed that whistle detections varied monthly and in relation to fish noise and small vessel engine noise. Dolphins were distributed throughout most of the study area; however, whistle detections varied with distance from the coast. The results provide new knowledge about background noise composition in this region and provide the first information on the ecology of dolphin whistles in relation to this background noise, especially to fish chorus.

On s’intéresse dans ce travail à l’aspect tridimensionnel (3D) de la propagation sonore en milieux océaniques petits fonds dans le cadre des problèmes inverses. Les problèmes inverses en acoustique sous-marine se basent sur la modélisation bidimensionnelle (2D) de la propagation, ignorant ainsi les effets de réfraction horizontale, qualifiés d’effets 3D. Toutefois, la propagation acoustique en environnements petits fonds, tels le plateau continental, peut être affectée par des effets 3D, leur prise en compte nécessitant l’utilisation de modèles pleinement 3D. Une inversion basée sur un modèle 3D devient inabordable pour plus de deux paramètres à la fois en raison de temps CPU particulièrement élevés. L’objectif de ce travail est d’examiner l’importance des effets 3D sur la performance et la fiabilité des procédures d’inversion habituellement utilisées dans les problèmes de l’acoustique sous-marine. Pour cela, on se place dans un guide d’onde océanique à géométrie inclinée. Des expérimentations à échelle réduite sont menées afin d’identifier et d’interpréter les effets 3D. Une procédure d’inversion par champs d’onde adaptés, formulée dans un cadre Bayesien et basée sur la recherche exhaustive dans l’espace des paramètres, est élaborée. L’inversion s’effectue en comparant des données basse fréquence du champ acoustique, recueillies le long d’antennes linéaires verticales ou horizontales, aux répliques générées par des modèles d’équation parabolique 2D et 3D. Les paramètres importants sont identifiés au moyen d’une étude de sensibilité de la fonction de coût. Dans une étape préliminaire, la performance de l’inversion est étudiée, sur données synthétiques bruitées, dans un cas simple permettant l’utilisation de modèles 2D. Une stratégied’inversion en sous-espaces résultant en une réduction importante des temps CPU pour l’inversion, est examinée. L’inversion est ensuite abordée en présence d’un fond incliné. La possibilité et les limites d’une inversion basée sur un modèle 2D sont explorées. Cette approche, mise en œuvre sur données synthétiques, met en évidence la pertinence de l’utilisation de modèles 2D en champ relativement proche. Une inversion basée sur un modèle 3D n’étant alors nécessaire que pour la pente, des temps CPU raisonnables sont ainsi réalisés. En revanche, en champ lointain, nous sommes confrontés à un risque potentiel d’estimation erronée et le recours à une modélisation 3D devient nécessaire. / This work deals with the three-dimensional (3D) aspect of sound propagation in shallow-water oceanic environments with respect to inverse problems. Inverse problems in underwater acoustics are based on twodimensional (2D) modeling of sound propagation, hence ignoring the effects of horizontal refraction, referred to as 3D propagation effects. However, the acoustic propagation in shallow-water environments, like the continental shelf, may be affected by 3D effects requiring 3D modeling to be accounted for. An inversion based on a 3D model for more than two parameters at a time becomes prohibitive due to dramatically increased CPU times. The aim of this work is to investigate the importance of the 3D effects with respect to the performance and reliability of the inversion procedures typically applied in problems of underwater acoustics. To this aim, we focus on a wedge-shaped oceanic wave guide. Laboratory scale experiments of long-range acoustic propagation are performed to identify and interpret the 3D effects due to a sloping bottom, as predicted by numerical simulations. A matched-field inversion procedure implemented within a Bayesian framework and based on the exhaustive search over the parameter space is elaborated. The inversion is performed by comparing low frequency acoustic field data, collected along vertical or horizontal line arrays, to replica generated from 2D and 3D parabolic equation codes. The recoverable parameters are identified by means of a sensitivity study of the cost function. In a preliminary step, the inversion performance is investigated on noisy synthetic data in a simple waveguide where 2D codes apply. A ubspace inversion strategy providing significant reduction in CPU times is examined. The inversion in the presence of a sloping bottom is then considered. The feasibility and the limits of an inversion matching replica from a 2D code are explored. This approach, applied on synthetic data, highlights the relevance of using 2D codes at relatively short ranges. An inversion based on a 3D code is thus only needed for the slope, and reasonable CPU times are achieved. On the other hand, important mismatch might occur at farther ranges and 3D modeling is required.

CAPES / Nesta Tese de Doutorado propõe-se um modelo de consumo de energia para redes acústicas subaquáticas que leva em consideração as especificidades do ambiente subaquático, como a comunicação utilizando ondas acústicas, a dependência da largura de banda do canal com a perda de percurso, que varia tanto com a distância quanto com a frequência, e o ruído. O desvanecimento, resultado do multipercurso, normalmente modelado pelas distribuições Rayleigh e Rice nas transmissões terrestres, é modelado pela distribuição K, que melhor representa a severidade do ambiente subaquático. O modelo considera uma rede subaquática linear de múltiplos saltos e a possibilidade de retransmissões para calcular a energia total consumida para cada bit de informação transmitido com sucesso entre a fonte e o destino. A fim de obter o menor consumo de energia, a SNR e a frequência de operação também são otimizadas, sendo considerado o uso de códigos convolucionais, cuja taxa ótima que leva ao menor consumo é determinada. Uma análise teórica é desenvolvida para cenários com e sem limitação de atraso. No primeiro caso avalia-se o consumo de energia quando retransmissões não são permitidas ou devem ser limitadas e, portanto, uma FER residual deve ser tolerada. No segundo caso infinitas retransmissões são permitidas até que um pacote seja recebido sem erros. Para ambos cenários o número ótimo de saltos que minimiza o consumo de energia é determinado, e na sequência o impacto do número de tentativas de transmissão é considerado. Resultados numéricos são apresentados, mostrando que o esquema de múltiplos saltos é mais eficiente em termos de consumo de energia que a transmissão direta. Além disso, os resultados mostram que um número pequeno de tentativas de transmissão é suficiente para alcançar uma redução considerável no consumo de energia em redes de múltiplos saltos, limitando o atraso médio por pacote transmitido, o que é muito interessante em aplicações reais. / In this Thesis, an energy consumption model for underwater acoustic networks is proposed. The model takes into account the specificities of the underwater environment, such as the use of acoustic waves for communication, dependence of the underwater acoustic channel bandwidth with the path loss, which varies with both the distance and frequency, and noise. The fading, usually modeled by Rayleigh and Rice distributions on terrestrial communications, in this work, is modeled by the K distribution, which best represents the severity of the underwater environment. The model considers a linear multi-hop underwater network and the possibility of retransmissions to calculate the total energy consumed for each bit of information successfully transmitted between the source and the destination. In order to obtain the minimum energy, the SNR and the operating frequency are also optimized. The use of convolutional codes is considered and the optimal code rate, which leads to the minimum energy consumption, is determined. A theoretical analysis was developed for two scenarios: delay constrained and delay unconstrained networks, indicating the optimal number of hops which minimizes energy consumption. Next, the impact of the number of transmission trials was considered. A numerical analysis was also performed for both the scenarios. The numerical results validate the theoretical analysis, showing that the multi-hop scheme is more efficient in terms of energy consumption when compared to direct transmission. Furthermore, the results show that a small number of transmission trials is sufficient to achieve a considerable reduction in energy consumption in multi-hop networks, limiting the average delay per packet transmitted, which is very interesting in real applications.

O presente trabalho aborda a aplicação de códigos fontanais em redes subaquáticas. Tais redes transmitem dados abaixo da água fazendo uso de sinais acústicos e possuem diversas aplicações. No entanto, é sabido que esse tipo de rede é caracterizado por uma baixa velocidade de propagação e largura de banda menor que as redes que operam em meios de transmissão mais conhecidos, tais como a transmissão sem fio via ondas de rádio frequência, resultando num maior atraso na entrega de pacotes. Para tentar minimizar estes atrasos e aumentar a eficiência energética das redes subaquáticas, o trabalho otimizou o sistema de transmissão inserindo um código corretor de erros fontanal no transmissor de mensagens. Dentro desse contexto, foi necessário modelar o consumo energético necessário para a transmissão correta de pacotes de dados em redes subaquáticas utilizando códigos fontanais. Dentre os resultados do trabalho, o mais relevante conclui que o uso dos códigos fontanais é capaz de reduzir em até 30% o consumo de energia quando a distância de transmissão é de 20 km para o caso com a taxa de erro de quadro alvo (FER) de Po = 10^−5, e em ate 25% para a FER alvo de Po = 10^−3. / The present work employs fountain codes in an underwater network, in which data is transmitted using acoustic signals and has many applications. However, underwater networks are usually characterized by low propagation speed and smaller bandwidth than networks that use radio frequency signals, resulting in larger transmission delays. Then, aiming at minimizing the delays and increasing the energy efficiency of underwater networks, the present work employs fountain error-correcting codes at the transmitter. To that end, it was first necessary to model the energy consumption of a success data packet transmission in an underwater network using fountain codes. Our results show that the use of fountain codes is able to reduce up to 30% of energy consumption when the transmission distance is of 20 km for the case with a target frame error rate (FER) of Po = 10^−5 , and 25% for the same distance with a target FER of Po = 10^−3.