The energy consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions associated with urban water systems have come under scrutiny in recent times, as a result of increasing interest in climate change, to which urban water systems are particularly vulnerable. The approach most commonly taken previously to modelling these results has been to consider various urban water system components in great detail, but in isolation from the rest of the system. This piecewise approach is suboptimal, since it systematically fails to reveal the relative importance of the energy consumption and GHG emissions associated with each system component in the context of the entire urban water system. Hence, it was determined that a new approach to modelling the energy consumption and GHG emissions associated with urban water systems was necessary. It was further determined that the value derived from such a model would be greatly enhanced if it could also model the water consumption and wastewater generation associated with each system component, such that integrated policies could be developed, aimed at minimising water consumption, wastewater generation, energy consumption and GHG emissions concurrently. Hence, the following research question was posed: How should the relationships between the water consumption, wastewater generation, energy consumption and GHG emissions associated with the operation of urban water systems be modelled such that the impact of various changes to the system configuration made at different spatial scales can be determined within the context of the entire system? In this research project, life cycle assessment ideas were employed to develop such a new modelling methodology. Initially, the approach was developed at the building-scale, such that the end uses of water present in a selected building and any associated appliances could be modelled, along with the fraction of the citywide water supply and wastewater systems directly associated with providing services to that building. This vast breadth of scope was delivered by considering only the operational life cycle stage of each urban water system component, excluding both the pre- and post-operational life cycle stages of the associated infrastructure. The value of this pilot model was illustrated by several case studies, focused on residential buildings connected to the centralised water supply and wastewater systems in Melbourne, Australia. Later, the approach was extended to the city-scale by using probabilistic distributions of each input parameter, such that all of the end uses of water present in a city, and all of the associated building-scale appliances could be modelled, along with the associated complete water supply and wastewater systems. The value of this city-scale model was illustrated by applying it to model a hypothetical case study city, resembling Melbourne, Australia in many ways. Due to a lack of data, this application was limited to the residential sector of the case study city, along with the fraction of the citywide water supply and wastewater systems directly associated with providing services to that sector. The results generated by the pilot and city-scale models showed that the new modelling methodology could be employed at a wide range of scales to assess the relative importance of each modelled urban water system component in terms of the specified results. Importantly, the high resolution of those results enabled the identification of the underlying causes of the relative importance of each urban water system component, such that efficient and effective approaches to reducing each result for each system component could be developed. Interestingly, for the specific case studies investigated, it was revealed that some commonly neglected system components were actually extremely important, such as domestic hot water services, a trend found to be largely driven by hot water consumption in showers.

This research deals with urban water reuse planning and management modeling in the context of sustainable development. Rapid urbanization and population growth have presented a great challenge to urban water resources management. As water reuse may alleviate pollution loads and enhance water supply sources, water reuse is being recognized as a sustainable urban water management strategy and is becoming increasingly attractive in urban water resources management. An efficient water reuse planning and management model is of significance in promoting water reuse practices. This thesis introduces an urban water reuse management and planning model using optimization methods with an emphasis on modeling uncertainty issues associated with water demand and water quality. The model is developed in conjunction with the overall urban water system with considerations over water supply, water demand, water distribution, water quality, and wastewater treatment and discharge. The objective of the model is to minimize the overall cost of the system subject to technological, societal and environmental constraints. Uncertainty issues associated with water demand and treatment quality are modeled by introducing stochastic programming methods, namely, two-stage stochastic recourse programming and chance-constraint programming. The model is capable of identifying and evaluating water reuse in urban water systems to optimize the allocation of urban water resources with regard to uncertainties. It thus provides essential information in planning and managing urban water reuse systems towards a more sustainable urban water resources management. An application was presented in order to demonstrate the modeling process and to analyze the impact of uncertainties.

This research deals with urban water reuse planning and management modeling in the context of sustainable development. Rapid urbanization and population growth have presented a great challenge to urban water resources management. As water reuse may alleviate pollution loads and enhance water supply sources, water reuse is being recognized as a sustainable urban water management strategy and is becoming increasingly attractive in urban water resources management. An efficient water reuse planning and management model is of significance in promoting water reuse practices. This thesis introduces an urban water reuse management and planning model using optimization methods with an emphasis on modeling uncertainty issues associated with water demand and water quality. The model is developed in conjunction with the overall urban water system with considerations over water supply, water demand, water distribution, water quality, and wastewater treatment and discharge. The objective of the model is to minimize the overall cost of the system subject to technological, societal and environmental constraints. Uncertainty issues associated with water demand and treatment quality are modeled by introducing stochastic programming methods, namely, two-stage stochastic recourse programming and chance-constraint programming. The model is capable of identifying and evaluating water reuse in urban water systems to optimize the allocation of urban water resources with regard to uncertainties. It thus provides essential information in planning and managing urban water reuse systems towards a more sustainable urban water resources management. An application was presented in order to demonstrate the modeling process and to analyze the impact of uncertainties.

Concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs) have caused water quality concerns in many rural watersheds, sometimes forcing the State of Texas to conduct Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) assessments of stream nutrients such as nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P). One suggested Best Management Practice (BMP) is the export of phosphorus (P) through turfgrass sod produced with composted dairy manure from an impaired rural watershed to an urban watershed. The manure-grown sod releases P slowly and would not require additional P fertilizer for up to 20 years in the receiving watershed. This would eliminate P application to the sod and improve the water quality of urban streams. The Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) was used to model a typical suburban watershed that would receive the transplanted sod. The objective of the modeling was to determine the water quality changes due to the import of sod transplanted from turf fields and grown with composted dairy manure. The SWAT model was calibrated to simulate historical flow and sediment and nutrient loading to Mary's Creek. The total P stream loading to Mary's Creek was lower when manure-grown sod was imported instead of commercial sod grown with inorganic fertilizers. Yet, flow, sediment yield, and total N yield increased equally for both cases at the watershed outlet. The SWAT simulations indicate that a turfgrass BMP can be used effectively to import manure P into an urban watershed and reduce in-stream P levels when compared to sod grown with inorganic fertilizers.

Population growth, urbanization, degrading water quality, and climate change are making management of scarce water resources an increasingly difficult task for the domestic sector. It is recognized that in order to manage urban water resources demand management is requisite. Demand management has been experimented with in large cities of developing countries but continued focus on expanding supply overshadows its potential benefits and ultimate success. In order to manage demand, it must be measured and understood. Intermittent water services are prevalent in developing countries, but unmetered domestic water use under such conditions has not been carefully studied. This study conducted 1,149 household surveys in a small, growing, coastal city (population est. 35,645) in La Libertad, Peru. The objectives were to 1) characterize current household water use behaviors, perceptions and values as they vary among three user groups (two distinct unmetered intermittent water services and well users) and reveal the existing water use and potential household demand for water, and 2) propose demand management tactics applicable to conditions of the study site that may be generalizable to small, developing, cities. Survey results show daily per capita water use in the range of 35 to 90 L with more water being used by the group that receives water for a longer duration of time. The distribution of water was inequitable and, on average, households received water for less time than the service providers' reported duration. Demand is likely to grow due to increasing water-related infrastructure, established water behaviors, and a lack of understanding regarding regional scarcity and water conservation. Households are not satisfied with existing service conditions, particularly water quality, but due to an apparent distrust in their water providers are unwilling to pay for improvements. For domestic service to remain sustainable under the pressures of increasing water scarcity, demand management strategies, particularly education and awareness building, are likely achievable and should be adopted, complementary to supply-minded management.

Efforts to commercialize water supply and sanitation in Dhaka, Bangladesh, have been pushed vigorously by internal and external proponents of neo-liberalism. The thesis takes a critical look at these developments and analyzes the role of multinational finance institutions in this process. In particular, it looks into the role of these finance institutions in funding reform projects to corporatize Dhaka Water Supply and Sewerage Authority (WASA), examining the impacts on end users, especially marginalized sections of society. The thesis describes how, in the process of corporatization, Dhaka WASA is and will continue to be more assertive in its commercial orientation than it was previously. The paper also studies a highly touted ‘successful’ co-operative model for revenue management called Program for Performance Improvement (PPI), seen by some as an alternative to privatization. I argue that the model in fact emerged as a consequence of the commercialization efforts of neoliberal reforms and that the revenue management model has created an isolated business unit with a reclusive management that undermines the egalitarian objectives of the water utility as a public service entity. / Thesis (Master, Environmental Studies) -- Queen's University, 2009-01-06 12:06:45.901

The research described in the thesis details the investigation of build-up and wash-off process kinetics of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) and heavy metals in urban areas. It also discusses the design and development of a rainfall simulator as an important research tool to ensure homogeneity and reduce the large number of variables that are usually inherent to urban water quality research. The rainfall simulator was used to collect runoff samples from three study areas, each with different land uses. The study areas consisted of sites with typical residential, industrial and commercial characteristics in the region. Build-up and wash-off samples were collected at each of the three sites. The collected samples were analysed for a number of chemical and physico-chemical parameters. In addition to this, eight heavy metal elements and 16 priority listed PAHs were analysed in five different particle size fractions of the build-up and wash-off samples. The data generated from the testing of the samples were evaluated using multivariate analysis, which reduced the complexity involved in determining the relative importance of a single parameter in urban water quality. Consequently, variables and processes influencing loadings and concentrations of PAHs and heavy metals in urban stormwater runoff from paved surfaces at any given time were identified and quantified using Principal Component Analysis (PCA). Furthermore, the process kinetics found were validated using a multivariate modelling approach and Partial Least Square (PLS) regression, which confirmed the transferability of chemical processes in urban water quality. Fine particles were dominant in both the build-up and wash-off samples from the three sites. This was mirrored in the heavy metal and PAH concentrations at the three sites, which were significantly higher in particles between 0.45-75μm than in any other fraction. Thus, the larger surface area and electrostatic charge of fine particles were favourable in sorbing PAHs and heavy metals. However, factors such as soil composition, total organic carbon (TOC), the presence of Fe and Mn-oxides and pH of the stormwater were all found to be important in partitioning of the metals and PAHs into different fractions. Additionally, PAHs were consistently found in concentrations above their aqueous solubility, which was attributed to colloidal organic particles being able to increase the dissolved fraction of PAHs. Hence, chemical and physico-chemical parameters played a significant role in the distribution of PAHs and heavy metals in urban stormwater. More importantly, the research showed the wide range of factors that distribute metals and PAHs in an urban environment. Furthermore, it indicated the need for monitoring these parameters in urban areas to ensure that urban stormwater management measures are effective in improving water quality. The build-up and wash-off process kinetics identified using PCA at the respective land uses were predicted using PLS and it was found that the transferability of the governing processes were high even though the PAHs and metal concentrations and loads were highly influenced by the source strength at each site. The increased transferability of fundamental concepts in urban water quality could have significant implications in urban stormwater management. This is primarily attributed to common urban water quality mitigation strategies relying on studies based on physical concepts and processes derived from water quantity studies, which are difficult to transfer between catchments. Hence, a more holistic approach incorporating chemical processes compared to the current piecemeal solutions could significantly improve the protection of key environmental values in a region. Furthermore, urban water quantity mitigation measures are generally designed to reduce the impacts of high-flow events. This research suggests that fairly frequent occurring rainfall events, such as 1-year design rainfall events, could carry significant heavy metal and PAH concentrations in both particulate and dissolved fractions. Hence, structural measures, designed to decrease quantity and quality impact on receiving waters during 10 or 20-year Average Recurrence Interval (ARI) events could be inefficient in removing the majority of PAHs and heavy metals being washed off during more frequent events. The understanding of physical and chemical processes in urban stormwater management could potentially lead to significant improvements in pollutant removal techniques which in turn could lead to significant socio-economic advantages. This project can serve as a baseline study for urban water quality investigations in terms of adopting new methodology and data analysis.

Accurate and reliable estimations are the most important factors for the development of efficient stormwater pollutant mitigation strategies. Modelling is the primary tool used for such estimations. The general architecture of typical modelling approaches is to replicate pollutant processes along with hydrologic processes on catchment surfaces. However, due to the lack of understanding of these pollutant processes and the underlying physical parameters, the estimations are subjected to gross errors. Furthermore, the essential requirement of model calibration leads to significant data and resource requirements. This underlines the necessity for simplified and robust stormwater pollutant estimation procedures. The research described in this thesis primarily details the extensive knowledge developed on pollutant build-up and wash-off processes. Knowledge on both build-up and wash-off were generated by in-depth field investigations conducted on residential road and roof surfaces. Additionally, the research describes the use of a rainfall simulator as a tool in urban water quality research. The rainfall simulator was used to collect runoff samples from small-plot surfaces. The use of a rainfall simulator reduced the number of variables which are common to pollutant wash-off. Pollutant build-up on road and roof surfaces was found to be rapid during the initial time period and the rate reduced when the antecedent dry days increase becoming asymptote to a constant value. However, build-up on roofs was gradual when compared to road surfaces where the build-up on the first two days was 66% of the total build-up. Though the variations were different, it was possible to develop a common replication equation in the form of a power function for build-up for the two surface types with a as a multiplication coefficient and b as a power coefficient. However, the values for the two build-up equation coefficients, a, and b were different in each case. It was understood that the power coefficient b varies only with the surface type. The multiplication coefficient varies with a range of parameters including land-use and traffic volume. Additionally, the build-up observed on road surfaces was highly dynamic. It was found that pollutant re-distribution occurs with finer particles being removed from the surface thus allowing coarser particles to build up. This process results in changes to the particle size composition of build-up. However, little evidence was noted of re-distribution of pollutants on roof surfaces. Furthermore, the particulate pollutants in both road and roof surfaces were high in adsorption capacity. More than 50% of the road and more than 60% of the roof surface particulates were finer than 100 μm which increases the capacity to adsorb other pollutants such as heavy metals and hydrocarbons. In addition, the samples contained a significant amount of DOC which would enhance the solubility of other pollutants. The wash-off investigations on road and roof surfaces showed a high concentration of solid pollutants during the initial part of events. This confirmed the occurrence of the 'first flush' phenomenon. The observed wash-off patterns for road and roof surfaces were able to be mathematically replicated using an exponential equation. The exponential equation proposed is a modified version of an equation proposed in past research. The modification was primarily in terms of an additional parameter referred to as the 'capacity factor' (CF). CF defines the rainfall's ability to mobilise solid pollutants from a given surface. It was noted that CF varies with rainfall intensity, particle size distribution and surface characteristics. Additional to the mathematical replication of wash-off, analysis further focused on understanding the physical processes governing wash-off. For this, both particle size distribution and physicochemical parameters of wash-off pollutants were analysed. It was noted that there is little variation in the particle size distribution of particulates in wash-off with rainfall intensity and duration. This suggested that particle size is not an influential parameter in wash-off. It is hypothesised that the particulate density and adhesion to road surfaces are the primary criteria that govern wash-off. Additionally, significantly high pollutant contribution from roof surfaces was noted. This justifies the significance of roof surfaces as an urban pollutant source particularly in the case of first flush. This dissertation further describes a procedure to translate the knowledge created on pollutant build-up and wash-off processes using small-plots to urban catchment scale. This leads to a simple and robust urban water quality estimation tool. Due to its basic architecture, the estimation tool is referred to as a 'translation procedure'. It is designed to operate without a calibration process which would require a large amount of data. This is done by using the pollutant nature of the catchment in terms of buildup and wash-off processes as the basis of measurements. Therefore, the translation procedure is an extension of the current estimation techniques which are typically complex and resource consuming. The use of a translation procedure is simple and based on the graphical estimation of parameters and tabular form of calculations. The translation procedure developed is particularly accurate in estimating water quality in the initial part of runoff events.

The provision of water, wastewater and stormwater infrastructure is an essential ingredient of cities. However, questions are being raised about the type and form of urban infrastructure, for economic and environmental reasons. Traditionally these techologies have offered linear solutions, drawing increasing volumes of water into cities and discharging waste at ever increasing levels, causing escalating stress on the environment. In addition the costs of water infrastructure provision and replacement, both in the developing and developed world, is becoming prohibitive. In response, a new paradigm has been called for and new solutions are emerging that have been labelled as Integrated Urban Water Management (IUWM). This concept can be considered to consist of both technical and philosophical dimensions, and represents a new form of professional praxis. However, the adoption of these techniques and concepts is constrained by the inertia of the existing urban water systems. It is therefore argued that the introduction of any change must occur across a number of dimensions of the technoeconomic system of the city. These dimensions-artefacts and technical systems (i.e. the technology and knowledge systems), professional praxis and socio-political context (i.e. institutions, culture and politics) and biophysical realities and world views (i.e. the environment and underlying values) - provide a framework for analysis of the change process - both how it is occurring and how it needs to occur. This framework is used to illustrate the link between environment values and the process of technological innovation, and points to the need for the emerging values and innovations to be institutionalised into the professional praxis and socio-political context of society. Specifically, it is argued that a new form of transdisciplinary professional praxis is emerging and needs to be cultivated. A broad review of the literature, an evaluation of selected emerging technologies and three case studies are used to illustrate and argue this position. These examples show the potential economic, social and environmental benefits of IUWM and provide some insight into the potential which this approach has to influence the form and structure of the city and at the same time highlighting the institutional arrangements required to manage urban water systems.

Submitted by Érica Lemos Gulinelli null (ericagulinelliarq@gmail.com) on 2016-04-04T13:58:41Z No. of bitstreams: 1 GaiaSofia_EricaGulinelli_Final.pdf: 3926349 bytes, checksum: 36e94620fee8b07ea2363e504280dde8 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Juliano Benedito Ferreira (julianoferreira@reitoria.unesp.br) on 2016-04-05T19:13:04Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 guilinelli_el_me_bauru.pdf: 3926349 bytes, checksum: 36e94620fee8b07ea2363e504280dde8 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-05T19:13:04Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 guilinelli_el_me_bauru.pdf: 3926349 bytes, checksum: 36e94620fee8b07ea2363e504280dde8 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-02-29 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / O Saneamento e a questão das águas urbanas são pertinentes e importantes para as cidades na atualidade. Entendendo as origens, problemas e conflitos do passado, pode-se discutir possíveis soluções para as adversidades diárias no momento contemporâneo. Desta forma, muitas poderiam ter sido as perspectivas para analisar o percurso pela história do saneamento da cidade. Contudo, o olhar dado a esta pesquisa parte de um questionamento central: o princípio estruturador para a coleta de referências e informações, como também, serviu de base para análises ao longo do texto. Tal questão pode ser formulada assim: como se deu a trajetória histórica do saneamento na cidade de Bauru atrelada aos aspectos do desenvolvimento econômicos, sociais, políticos e culturais, no período de sua formação urbana até a década de 1940? Percebe-se que o saneamento é visto como medida higienizadora e de embelezamento do ambiente construído, com a finalidade de prevenir doenças e manter a assepsia. A infraestrutura de água e esgoto constituiu-se como um meio de minimizar as questões relacionadas com a higiene urbana da cidade. A literatura que trata a história de sanear a cidade de Bauru é fragmentada e escassa, baseada em relatos de memorialistas. Assim, opta por uma análise integrada dos setores da história urbana, do saneamento e da saúde (por meio de ações sanitárias) com a finalidade de entender sua intrínseca relação com a demanda social, embasando-a em fatos históricos e documentação primária e técnica tais como Atas de Câmara, Códigos de Posturas, outras leis, iconografia e fontes primárias. / Sanitation and urban waters are greatly relevant and important to the cities nowadays. Understanding the origins, problems and conflicts of the past, we can discuss possible solutions for everyday adversities. The perspectives concerning to the analysis of this matter could have been done by many ways throughout the city’s sanitation history. However, the overview aimed at this research is a part of a central question, which concerns to the structuring principle of collecting references and information to make it serve as basis for analysis throughout the dissertation. This hypothesis can be formulated as the question that follows: how did the historical trajectory of sanitation in the city of Bauru tied aspects of economic, social, political and cultural development, from its urban conformation in the 1940s? It is perceived that sanitation regards both to hygiene and to environmental beautification, a concept built for the purpose of prevention of diseases and asepsis. The infrastructure of water and sewage constituted a means to minimize issues related to the urban hygiene of the city. The literature on the history of cleansing up the city of Bauru is fragmented and scarce, based mainly on memoir reports. That is why this research aims to present an integrated analysis of the sectors of urban history, sanitation and health (through sanitary actions) in order to understand its intrinsic relationship to the social demand, basing it on historical facts and technical documentation such as Board Minutes, Postures Codes, other laws, iconography and primary sources.