Student activism is an extremely complex phenomenon. The complexity of this phenomenon is caused by a great variety of factors. Some of the factors are the lack of a well-organized movement with a definite programme of principles, a lack of a foundation and the lack of a well defined object and a lack of a planned "modus operandi”. It is further aggravated by a wavering and doubtful objective and by the changeability, unpredictability and even capriciousness of behaviour. This complexity is further emphasized by the diversity of the degree of involvement as well as the great variety of persons involved. The problem not only concerns the individual, it stretches out into the family, into the school, into the university, into the church, into corporative establishments, such as military and industrial concerns. Thus, society as a whole becomes involved. Tremendous difficulty in research on this subject was caused by the volume of work done by other writers who endeavoured to approach the subject in all its diversity from one point of view only, and described it as such, They attempted to elucidate this very complicated phenomenon by means of a definite hypothesis. Lewis Feuer's method of approach is for instance the generation conflict; Theodore Roszack's is that of the awakening contra-culture; Jean-Francais Revel favours that of a wide and diversified revolution; Charles Reich's is that of an awakening new or third consciousness; Zbigniew Brzezinski believes in a contra-revolutionary power; Bruno Bettelheim's theory is that of the frustrated, superfluous youth while Marshall McLuhan's is that of the news-media-conditioned youth, Everyone of these points of view possesses an element of truth, but it can lay no claim to the whole truth. In several instances the one-sided stress of the phenomenon is an over-simplification. One cannot understand the student-in-revolt merely by making a psychological analysis of his complex individual personality, neither can he be understood by giving attention only to the environmental factors which developed his personality such as the domestic, the social, the cultural, the economic, the educational, the religious and the political ones. Even the study of the institutions as well as the circumstances against which the activists’ opposition is directed, will not supply the answer. However, all these factors must be taken into account. If we take everything into consideration, it seems that sociology, moreover, pedagogical sociology as scientific discipline, will be the best equipped to give a full picture of student activism. In the second place, sociology is the discipline which will be able to analize and evaluate the subject because sociology more than any other social, science endeavours to obtain an entire picture of human nature. It is done empirically and it examines relationships between persons, between connections and between structures on the basis of factual information. However, the task of sociology does not end there. Sociology is also a normative science; it also has a philosophical task, viz. the theoretical analysis of the various structural principles underlying social relationships. Sociology even questions the fundamental religious principles underlying a subject. The first part of the study (chapters 2 - 6) is concerned with the results of an empirical-sociological research, After a general orientation with regard to the seriousness and the extent of the phenomenon of student activism in the U.S.A., two unique examples, that of Berkeley in 1964 and that of Columbia in 1968, are discussed, Taking into consideration the various efforts to differentiate between the diverse types of student activists, two different kinds can be clearly identified: The Hippies and the activists, alternatively, the culturally alienated and the politically involved, i.e. the "alienated and the New Left”, Certain similarities between these two exist, such as their personalistic tendencies, their abilities, their aloofness towards any guidance by other people or ideologies and their permissiveness. Yet the differences are far greater. During the sixties a definite process of polarisation became evident. The uprooting and alienation inherent in the Hippies are much greater in extent and intensity than that found amongst the activists. Like= wise, tile rejection of the existing order of things as found among youth in general differs from that found among the activists. As a rule the Hippie's outlook is such that he refuses to be committed about the future or about long-term objectives or plans. Orientation for success and vocational aims are completely lacking because there is an inherent pessimism concerning the future, as well as a complete lack of motivation. Furthermore, the Hippie rejects existing Christian virtues such as a sense of responsibility, self-denial, order and self-control, while he himself reveals certain values which have been fabricated in the workshops of liberalism and existentialism, such as openness, spontaniety, immediate experience and licentiousness. The obvious attitude of adults which implies that responsibility must be assumed and that co-operation is inevitable, is also rejected by them. They are thus unwilling to fit into the existing order, in their family or in the wider family unit, as well as into educational institutions and any other social order, Most students who become drop-outs are found among this group. The Hippies are thus undermining society from the inside to such an extent that they are turning it into a hollow shell, by questioning the legality of the existing order through their way of life and by ignoring the social ethical codes which is the corner stone of every society and by replacing it with their own contra-ethics. The “Students for Democratic Society" took the lead in the activist movement from 1962, Until the organisation was disbanded in 1969 the SDS went through different phases. At first, until about the middle of 1965, it had a strong political bias, when the main issues were the Vietnam War, civil rights for Negroes and compulsory military service. From 1965, however, it concentrated .mainly on issues concerning the university itself. The whole campaign centred round the theme "student power" and obtained its "charter" in this manner, From 1968 a change of direction took place, as a result of which the organisation became more and more revolutionary. Violence was stressed, This resulted in the politicising and radicalising of campuses sometimes with bloody confrontations. Two different targets at which the activists aimed their campaigns could be distinguished, viz. contemporary society in general and more specifically the university itself. An inquiry into the actual number of these rebels reveals quite a confusing picture. It is nevertheless clear that the number of students who were actively and constantly concerned with campus riots were comparatively low, approximately 4% to 11%. Various methods were used by the activists in order to reach their goal: sit-ins, teach-ins, civil disobedience, public demonstrations, ultimatums to university authorities, bringing the university administration into discredit, martyrdom and even violence. Towards the end of the sixties it became apparent that violence was receiving more and more prominence. The only answer which the "New Left" gave to this problem, which had to be faced, was the idea of participatory democracy. It accentuates decentralisation of management, of communal control, local initiative and ad hoc procedures instead of traditionally democratic patterns of control. At the universities this concept was applied with vigour -as a result of which students were represented on various bodies. The Vietnam War was given more prominence over all points of conflict or other grievances. They maintain that the war is not a true expression of American responsible involvement in Asian politics, but is the result of intrigue and bungling in a situation which apparently cannot be solved. The activists came into conflict in the universities with the process of de-humanising as a result of the continued measure in which the universities assumed the character or form of a multi-university and a service station. Basically the activist directed his criticism against the so-called "Establishment". By this he means the comprehensive, corporate structure which is characteristic of the liberal-democratic America of today: the entire tremendous complex of "big government, big business, big unions, big debts, and big educational institutions". He withdraws from this immensely complex system and rejects everybody who accepts the status quo of the Establishment. Still worse, he demonstrates against it, protests against it, writes against it, and sets fire to their buildings if needs be. Apart from the clearly indicated issues which characterise the phenomenon of student activism, there is a wide spectrum of underlying factors which must be fully considered before this phenomenon can be fully understood and adequately evaluated. This applies to a variety of factors on the socio-cultural, economic, political, religious, educational and philosophical levels. On the socio-cultural level matters such as the technological revolution, the post-modern youth, student sub-culture, generation conflict, the crisis with the authorities and participatory democracy hits one in the eye. In the economic sphere it is apparent that affluence has greatly affected the life of the rebellious student. As far as their political awareness is concerned, there is apparently an obvious correlation between the activist students and their parents, while certain universities and particular academic courses have a more stimulating effect on student activism than others. The religious background of the rebellious students can be distinguished from that of other students in the sense that a stronger degree of indifferentism, secularism and neutralism is found among them. The discontinuation of religious teaching at public schools has definitely stimulated these tendencies. The theology of the revolution has had a much more subtle and indirect influence on student activism. However, it can be stated: The death-of-God theology fits the present American mood of the post-Kennedy era, a mood calling for activism and social change, a get-with-it mood. There are rather a markedly large number of Jewish students in the ranks of the activists. With regard to the educational background, the Oedipal rebellion hypothesis, especially as advocated by Lewis Feuer and Bruno Bettelheim, does not offer a conclusive answer to the .problem although it does contain an element of truth. Although the rebellious student identifies himself with his father's radical principles and ideals, he disassociates himself from his father because of his own passivity and complainsancy. John Dewey as one of the most important moulders of the American educational ideal, is the father of the full-blown child-centred school where children are able to develop naturally through personal experience and are able to evolve by their own initiative, to reach intellectual enrichment as well as social suitability. Discipline and authority are not stressed in such an educational system, Since the forties of the twentieth century, Benjamin Spock has been adding to the same pattern and has helped with his phenomenal influence to rear a younger generation for whom the traditional values of self-discipline, respect for authority and desire for conventional success have been replaced by spontaniety, immediate self-gratification and permissiveness. This attitude is in no small measure responsible for the activistic tendencies of the students, From a philosophical point of view, American political and social thinking are the spontaneous and ultimate result of Western Humanism. It is especially noticeable in the growing secularism, in the absolutising of the democratic ideal, in the deterministic domination of nature as expounded in technocracy, in pragmatism and in corporative liberalism, All these projections of Humanism serve to a greater or lesser extent as fuel for the fire of student activism. After the empirical investigation as described in chapters 2 to 6, chapter 7 gives us the second main part of this work, By employing the methods of philosophical sociology, a structural analysis of the university as well as a description of the ideal typical place which the student at a university should take, is given. Questions which touch on the university as a differentiated community are the following: its specific character, its functions, its particular relationships, especially its involvement and close interaction with other social groups in contemporary society, and finally its own special composition. All these facets can for obvious reasons, only be touched on very briefly. Everyone should, or could, be subjected to a separate and thorough .scientific investigation, The actual object which should be philosophically and sociologically investigated, is the student himself, his place at the university, the particular characteristics of the student community, his freedoms and rights, his responsibilities and his duties towards both the university as well as the outside world, his attitude to other components of the university, in fact, his entire typically student personality with the prerogatives and restraints attached thereto. Only after this has been done, the defects of the course of the modern American university-system can be pointed out and the rebellious student be critically judged in his true form. It appears then that the university is an institution "sui generis", with its own structural principles and intrinsic task-spectrum which must be deferred to. It is and always will be a "universitas magistrorum et scholarium" in which the student must also take his proper place. Because of the typical composition of the university with its particular relationships of judicial, rational authority as well as of academic freedom, students do not have the right to control the university. Such an assumption is based on a false premise. The judicial aspect of the student includes his right to raise his voice in academic matters. A plea must be made in favour of the students being given a greater voice at every level of the university, The third main part of this work is given in the final two chapters. In chapter 8, by means of an evaluation, an enquiry is made into the deepest fundamental motives of the rebellious student as well as of the "Establishment” against which he objects. The manner in which the student-activists have been influenced by Marx and Marcuse is shown to be very illuminating. Student activism is even more clearly defined when it is considered from the point of view of the religious fundamental principles of Humanism, viz. the antinomy between nature and freedom. The American way of life is undeniably determined by the pole of the control of nature by the personality of the autonomous human being. Humanism has degenerated into a process of dehumanization. Factors which contributed towards this are: technique, organisation, corporative liberalism, bureaucracy and everything appertaining thereto. The "Establishment" dominated everything. The reaction against this is a trend which has been active in society for some time without being obvious. Lately, it has radically, acutely and even revolutionary erupted into student activism. The pendulum has therefore swayed to the other side. It has become a search for self-identity, creativity, autonomy of the human being, and total freedom. Plumb centre of their argument is the idea that a person must be able to be himself in total freedom. The entire opposition against established authority is based on this, as well as a need for a complete reversal of the existing order, the status quo. Their propensity towards the idea of permanent revolution is rooted in this. Nevertheless, this concerns an attempt to realise completely the humanist-orientated concept of freedom. We are here still concerned with Humanism as such; even radicals can not escape "from the humanist involvement of the antinomy between nature and freedom. The swing of the pendulum, the shifting of the accent, the over-accentuation of the ideal of liberty, absolutising of liberty, offers no solution. It leaves the radical inevitably in the quagmire of permissiveness and nihilism, which are blood-brothers of anargism. Although the reply of the rebellious student to the problem of his time caused by his grievances and certain of his demands, is the implementing of the idea of participatory democracy, this must be rejected on the grounds of practical considerations as well as on principle, It would therefore appear that both alternatives, that of the status quo and that of the postulate of, the revolution are unacceptable. In the final chapter the reforming religious fundamentals are used as a premise and an attempt is made to furnish a guide for a third alternative: the Christian one. Taking into account the vertical dimension which includes all scientific studies, the university can remain true to its structural principle and perform its intrinsic task as well as to its human relationships. Not forgetting that the power of sin is also busy with its destructive work in the Christian university as well as in Christian scientific study, the Christian principles, structures and performing of functions, offers a perspective to which the humanists are completely deficient, In this context student activism is a complete "Fremdkörper". / Proefskrif--PU vir CHO

Student activism is an extremely complex phenomenon. The complexity of this phenomenon is caused by a great variety of factors. Some of the factors are the lack of a well-organized movement with a definite programme of principles, a lack of a foundation and the lack of a well defined object and a lack of a planned "modus operandi”. It is further aggravated by a wavering and doubtful objective and by the changeability, unpredictability and even capriciousness of behaviour. This complexity is further emphasized by the diversity of the degree of involvement as well as the great variety of persons involved. The problem not only concerns the individual, it stretches out into the family, into the school, into the university, into the church, into corporative establishments, such as military and industrial concerns. Thus, society as a whole becomes involved. Tremendous difficulty in research on this subject was caused by the volume of work done by other writers who endeavoured to approach the subject in all its diversity from one point of view only, and described it as such, They attempted to elucidate this very complicated phenomenon by means of a definite hypothesis. Lewis Feuer's method of approach is for instance the generation conflict; Theodore Roszack's is that of the awakening contra-culture; Jean-Francais Revel favours that of a wide and diversified revolution; Charles Reich's is that of an awakening new or third consciousness; Zbigniew Brzezinski believes in a contra-revolutionary power; Bruno Bettelheim's theory is that of the frustrated, superfluous youth while Marshall McLuhan's is that of the news-media-conditioned youth, Everyone of these points of view possesses an element of truth, but it can lay no claim to the whole truth. In several instances the one-sided stress of the phenomenon is an over-simplification. One cannot understand the student-in-revolt merely by making a psychological analysis of his complex individual personality, neither can he be understood by giving attention only to the environmental factors which developed his personality such as the domestic, the social, the cultural, the economic, the educational, the religious and the political ones. Even the study of the institutions as well as the circumstances against which the activists’ opposition is directed, will not supply the answer. However, all these factors must be taken into account. If we take everything into consideration, it seems that sociology, moreover, pedagogical sociology as scientific discipline, will be the best equipped to give a full picture of student activism. In the second place, sociology is the discipline which will be able to analize and evaluate the subject because sociology more than any other social, science endeavours to obtain an entire picture of human nature. It is done empirically and it examines relationships between persons, between connections and between structures on the basis of factual information. However, the task of sociology does not end there. Sociology is also a normative science; it also has a philosophical task, viz. the theoretical analysis of the various structural principles underlying social relationships. Sociology even questions the fundamental religious principles underlying a subject. The first part of the study (chapters 2 - 6) is concerned with the results of an empirical-sociological research, After a general orientation with regard to the seriousness and the extent of the phenomenon of student activism in the U.S.A., two unique examples, that of Berkeley in 1964 and that of Columbia in 1968, are discussed, Taking into consideration the various efforts to differentiate between the diverse types of student activists, two different kinds can be clearly identified: The Hippies and the activists, alternatively, the culturally alienated and the politically involved, i.e. the "alienated and the New Left”, Certain similarities between these two exist, such as their personalistic tendencies, their abilities, their aloofness towards any guidance by other people or ideologies and their permissiveness. Yet the differences are far greater. During the sixties a definite process of polarisation became evident. The uprooting and alienation inherent in the Hippies are much greater in extent and intensity than that found amongst the activists. Like= wise, tile rejection of the existing order of things as found among youth in general differs from that found among the activists. As a rule the Hippie's outlook is such that he refuses to be committed about the future or about long-term objectives or plans. Orientation for success and vocational aims are completely lacking because there is an inherent pessimism concerning the future, as well as a complete lack of motivation. Furthermore, the Hippie rejects existing Christian virtues such as a sense of responsibility, self-denial, order and self-control, while he himself reveals certain values which have been fabricated in the workshops of liberalism and existentialism, such as openness, spontaniety, immediate experience and licentiousness. The obvious attitude of adults which implies that responsibility must be assumed and that co-operation is inevitable, is also rejected by them. They are thus unwilling to fit into the existing order, in their family or in the wider family unit, as well as into educational institutions and any other social order, Most students who become drop-outs are found among this group. The Hippies are thus undermining society from the inside to such an extent that they are turning it into a hollow shell, by questioning the legality of the existing order through their way of life and by ignoring the social ethical codes which is the corner stone of every society and by replacing it with their own contra-ethics. The “Students for Democratic Society" took the lead in the activist movement from 1962, Until the organisation was disbanded in 1969 the SDS went through different phases. At first, until about the middle of 1965, it had a strong political bias, when the main issues were the Vietnam War, civil rights for Negroes and compulsory military service. From 1965, however, it concentrated .mainly on issues concerning the university itself. The whole campaign centred round the theme "student power" and obtained its "charter" in this manner, From 1968 a change of direction took place, as a result of which the organisation became more and more revolutionary. Violence was stressed, This resulted in the politicising and radicalising of campuses sometimes with bloody confrontations. Two different targets at which the activists aimed their campaigns could be distinguished, viz. contemporary society in general and more specifically the university itself. An inquiry into the actual number of these rebels reveals quite a confusing picture. It is nevertheless clear that the number of students who were actively and constantly concerned with campus riots were comparatively low, approximately 4% to 11%. Various methods were used by the activists in order to reach their goal: sit-ins, teach-ins, civil disobedience, public demonstrations, ultimatums to university authorities, bringing the university administration into discredit, martyrdom and even violence. Towards the end of the sixties it became apparent that violence was receiving more and more prominence. The only answer which the "New Left" gave to this problem, which had to be faced, was the idea of participatory democracy. It accentuates decentralisation of management, of communal control, local initiative and ad hoc procedures instead of traditionally democratic patterns of control. At the universities this concept was applied with vigour -as a result of which students were represented on various bodies. The Vietnam War was given more prominence over all points of conflict or other grievances. They maintain that the war is not a true expression of American responsible involvement in Asian politics, but is the result of intrigue and bungling in a situation which apparently cannot be solved. The activists came into conflict in the universities with the process of de-humanising as a result of the continued measure in which the universities assumed the character or form of a multi-university and a service station. Basically the activist directed his criticism against the so-called "Establishment". By this he means the comprehensive, corporate structure which is characteristic of the liberal-democratic America of today: the entire tremendous complex of "big government, big business, big unions, big debts, and big educational institutions". He withdraws from this immensely complex system and rejects everybody who accepts the status quo of the Establishment. Still worse, he demonstrates against it, protests against it, writes against it, and sets fire to their buildings if needs be. Apart from the clearly indicated issues which characterise the phenomenon of student activism, there is a wide spectrum of underlying factors which must be fully considered before this phenomenon can be fully understood and adequately evaluated. This applies to a variety of factors on the socio-cultural, economic, political, religious, educational and philosophical levels. On the socio-cultural level matters such as the technological revolution, the post-modern youth, student sub-culture, generation conflict, the crisis with the authorities and participatory democracy hits one in the eye. In the economic sphere it is apparent that affluence has greatly affected the life of the rebellious student. As far as their political awareness is concerned, there is apparently an obvious correlation between the activist students and their parents, while certain universities and particular academic courses have a more stimulating effect on student activism than others. The religious background of the rebellious students can be distinguished from that of other students in the sense that a stronger degree of indifferentism, secularism and neutralism is found among them. The discontinuation of religious teaching at public schools has definitely stimulated these tendencies. The theology of the revolution has had a much more subtle and indirect influence on student activism. However, it can be stated: The death-of-God theology fits the present American mood of the post-Kennedy era, a mood calling for activism and social change, a get-with-it mood. There are rather a markedly large number of Jewish students in the ranks of the activists. With regard to the educational background, the Oedipal rebellion hypothesis, especially as advocated by Lewis Feuer and Bruno Bettelheim, does not offer a conclusive answer to the .problem although it does contain an element of truth. Although the rebellious student identifies himself with his father's radical principles and ideals, he disassociates himself from his father because of his own passivity and complainsancy. John Dewey as one of the most important moulders of the American educational ideal, is the father of the full-blown child-centred school where children are able to develop naturally through personal experience and are able to evolve by their own initiative, to reach intellectual enrichment as well as social suitability. Discipline and authority are not stressed in such an educational system, Since the forties of the twentieth century, Benjamin Spock has been adding to the same pattern and has helped with his phenomenal influence to rear a younger generation for whom the traditional values of self-discipline, respect for authority and desire for conventional success have been replaced by spontaniety, immediate self-gratification and permissiveness. This attitude is in no small measure responsible for the activistic tendencies of the students, From a philosophical point of view, American political and social thinking are the spontaneous and ultimate result of Western Humanism. It is especially noticeable in the growing secularism, in the absolutising of the democratic ideal, in the deterministic domination of nature as expounded in technocracy, in pragmatism and in corporative liberalism, All these projections of Humanism serve to a greater or lesser extent as fuel for the fire of student activism. After the empirical investigation as described in chapters 2 to 6, chapter 7 gives us the second main part of this work, By employing the methods of philosophical sociology, a structural analysis of the university as well as a description of the ideal typical place which the student at a university should take, is given. Questions which touch on the university as a differentiated community are the following: its specific character, its functions, its particular relationships, especially its involvement and close interaction with other social groups in contemporary society, and finally its own special composition. All these facets can for obvious reasons, only be touched on very briefly. Everyone should, or could, be subjected to a separate and thorough .scientific investigation, The actual object which should be philosophically and sociologically investigated, is the student himself, his place at the university, the particular characteristics of the student community, his freedoms and rights, his responsibilities and his duties towards both the university as well as the outside world, his attitude to other components of the university, in fact, his entire typically student personality with the prerogatives and restraints attached thereto. Only after this has been done, the defects of the course of the modern American university-system can be pointed out and the rebellious student be critically judged in his true form. It appears then that the university is an institution "sui generis", with its own structural principles and intrinsic task-spectrum which must be deferred to. It is and always will be a "universitas magistrorum et scholarium" in which the student must also take his proper place. Because of the typical composition of the university with its particular relationships of judicial, rational authority as well as of academic freedom, students do not have the right to control the university. Such an assumption is based on a false premise. The judicial aspect of the student includes his right to raise his voice in academic matters. A plea must be made in favour of the students being given a greater voice at every level of the university, The third main part of this work is given in the final two chapters. In chapter 8, by means of an evaluation, an enquiry is made into the deepest fundamental motives of the rebellious student as well as of the "Establishment” against which he objects. The manner in which the student-activists have been influenced by Marx and Marcuse is shown to be very illuminating. Student activism is even more clearly defined when it is considered from the point of view of the religious fundamental principles of Humanism, viz. the antinomy between nature and freedom. The American way of life is undeniably determined by the pole of the control of nature by the personality of the autonomous human being. Humanism has degenerated into a process of dehumanization. Factors which contributed towards this are: technique, organisation, corporative liberalism, bureaucracy and everything appertaining thereto. The "Establishment" dominated everything. The reaction against this is a trend which has been active in society for some time without being obvious. Lately, it has radically, acutely and even revolutionary erupted into student activism. The pendulum has therefore swayed to the other side. It has become a search for self-identity, creativity, autonomy of the human being, and total freedom. Plumb centre of their argument is the idea that a person must be able to be himself in total freedom. The entire opposition against established authority is based on this, as well as a need for a complete reversal of the existing order, the status quo. Their propensity towards the idea of permanent revolution is rooted in this. Nevertheless, this concerns an attempt to realise completely the humanist-orientated concept of freedom. We are here still concerned with Humanism as such; even radicals can not escape "from the humanist involvement of the antinomy between nature and freedom. The swing of the pendulum, the shifting of the accent, the over-accentuation of the ideal of liberty, absolutising of liberty, offers no solution. It leaves the radical inevitably in the quagmire of permissiveness and nihilism, which are blood-brothers of anargism. Although the reply of the rebellious student to the problem of his time caused by his grievances and certain of his demands, is the implementing of the idea of participatory democracy, this must be rejected on the grounds of practical considerations as well as on principle, It would therefore appear that both alternatives, that of the status quo and that of the postulate of, the revolution are unacceptable. In the final chapter the reforming religious fundamentals are used as a premise and an attempt is made to furnish a guide for a third alternative: the Christian one. Taking into account the vertical dimension which includes all scientific studies, the university can remain true to its structural principle and perform its intrinsic task as well as to its human relationships. Not forgetting that the power of sin is also busy with its destructive work in the Christian university as well as in Christian scientific study, the Christian principles, structures and performing of functions, offers a perspective to which the humanists are completely deficient, In this context student activism is a complete "Fremdkörper". / Proefskrif--PU vir CHO

The demands of a fast growing third world population on the education system of the Republic of South Africa places great stress on an economy already battling against sanctions and disinvestment. The challenge is to keep up standards of education in order to supply sufficient numbers of qualified manpower to keep the economy going whilst at the same time attempting to create equal educational facilities for an exploding black school population. At the other end of the scale is the problem of dwindling numbers of well qualified white teachers, especially in certain subjects like mathematics, science and commerce as they are recruited into the private sector offering them large increases in salaries. The intention of the study was to try to find a new model for financing and the related decision making of education. The modus operandi was: - i) A theoretical basis to the study was provided by looking at the development of the growing role of the state within the education system and the implications it has for the other participants in the system. ii) A look is taken at the "new right" philosophy as practised by Mrs Thatcher in England where the position of the individual vis-a-vis the state is being re-evaluated. iii) An analysis of the situation surrounding education and the economy as it presents itself in South Africa at the present moment is made. At the same time the position of each of the participants, namely the state, the parents, the educators and employers are evaluated. iv) The English system with its new Education Reform Act and the new concept of school-based management practised in Dade County, Florida in the USA is discussed for purposes of comparison. v) In conclusion a few suggestions are made regarding a future model for financing and managing of educational institutions in the RSA. / Skripsie (MBA)--PU vir CHO, 1989

The demands of a fast growing third world population on the education system of the Republic of South Africa places great stress on an economy already battling against sanctions and disinvestment. The challenge is to keep up standards of education in order to supply sufficient numbers of qualified manpower to keep the economy going whilst at the same time attempting to create equal educational facilities for an exploding black school population. At the other end of the scale is the problem of dwindling numbers of well qualified white teachers, especially in certain subjects like mathematics, science and commerce as they are recruited into the private sector offering them large increases in salaries. The intention of the study was to try to find a new model for financing and the related decision making of education. The modus operandi was: - i) A theoretical basis to the study was provided by looking at the development of the growing role of the state within the education system and the implications it has for the other participants in the system. ii) A look is taken at the "new right" philosophy as practised by Mrs Thatcher in England where the position of the individual vis-a-vis the state is being re-evaluated. iii) An analysis of the situation surrounding education and the economy as it presents itself in South Africa at the present moment is made. At the same time the position of each of the participants, namely the state, the parents, the educators and employers are evaluated. iv) The English system with its new Education Reform Act and the new concept of school-based management practised in Dade County, Florida in the USA is discussed for purposes of comparison. v) In conclusion a few suggestions are made regarding a future model for financing and managing of educational institutions in the RSA. / Skripsie (MBA)--PU vir CHO, 1989

This thesis describes the International Standards on Auditing (ISA) and the Vietnamese national Standards on Auditing (VSA), their genesis and current situation. The thesis presents a development of the audit in Vietnam, it's present situation and expected progress. The research refers to a survey. The aim of this survey was finding out the opinions and attitudes of Vietnamese's auditors to ISA and VSA.

Pour faire face à l’augmentation des émissions de CO2 dans l’atmosphère à cause de la production électrique dans des centrales à charbon, le captage en post-combustion au moyen d’un procédé VSA est une solution envisageable. Les adsorbants utilisés dans notre étude sont la TEPA imprégnée sur SiO2, les oxydes de terre rare et le MOF (Metal Organic Frameworks) SIM-1. Pour chaque adsorbant, une étude du perçage puis de la régénération a été effectuée à partir d’une alimentation composée de 15%vol de CO2 et de N2. De ces essais, les conditions opératoires des cycles VSA ont été établies (durées des phases courtes, pas de circulation de purge). En cycle, les performances sont comparées à celle du procédé d’absorption avec la monoéthénolamine. La pureté du désorbat varie de 89,2%vol à 97,2%vol selon les adsorbants et les conditions opératoires. Elle est inférieure à celle du procédé d’absorption (99%vol) mais est correcte pour le transport et le stockage. Le taux de captage évolue de 87,2% à 94,9% (absorption : 98%). La consommation énergétique est inférieure à celle du procédé avec la MEA (de 1,53 à 3,45 MJ.kgCO2 1 pour notre procédé et 3,7 MJ.kgCO2¬1 pour l’absorption) Enfin la productivité est du même ordre de grandeur que celle d’autres procédés VSA de la littérature. Avec le modèle numérique, une étude locale de l’adsorbeur a été menée. Puis grâce à une étude paramétrique, des conditions optimales en cycle ont été déterminées. Les résultats obtenus ont permis de mettre en évidence des performances comparables avec les autres procédés VSA de la littérature. De plus, notre procédé est beaucoup moins énergivore que le procédé d’absorption mais la pureté du désorbat et le taux de captage en CO2 restent inférieurs. / To deal with the CO2 emissions increase in the atmosphere due to electricity production, CO2 post-combustion capture by VSA process is a promising solution. The adsorbents used in this study are impregnated TEPA on SiO2, lanthanide oxides and the MOF (Metal Organic Frameworks) SIM-1. For each adsorbent, a study of breakthrough and regeneration was carried out from a feed composed of 15%vol CO2 and N2. From these experiments, the cyclic operating conditions of VSA have been established (short duration phases, no purge). Cyclic performances are compared to that of the absorption process with monoethenolamine. The desorbate purity varies from 89.2% to 97.2%vol according to adsorbent and operating conditions. It is less than that obtained with absorption process (99%vol) but it is correct for transport and storage. The recovery varies from 87.2% to 94.2% (absorption: 98%). The energy consumption is less than that the process with the MEA (from 1.53 to 3.45 MJ.kgCO2 1 for our process and 3.7 MJ.kgCO2 1 for absorption). . Finally, the productivity is of the same order of magnitude as that of other VSA processes from literature. With the numerical model, a local study of the adsorber was carried out. Afterwards, through a parametric study, cycle optimal conditions were determined. The cycle results highlighted comparable performances with the other VSA processes from literature. Moreover, our process needs less energy than absorption process but the desorbate purity and CO2 recovery remain lower.

This study concerns self initiated volunteer expatriation. Drawing on data from interviews and test results from a cohort of 48 New Zealand Volunteer Service Abroad volunteers, it explored their experiences as overseas volunteer development workers. Most literature concerning expatriates focuses on the expatriate assignment of managers. By comparison volunteer development workers remain an under-researched group. Moreover, much of the expatriate management literature and the volunteer development worker literature adopts a positivist approach using quantitative methodologies and large scale studies and consider expatriates from a managerial perspective, leaving the perspective of the individual relatively unexplored. This study seeks to focus on volunteer development workers, using qualitative as well as quantitative methodology and considering individual rather than organisational attitudes and behaviour. As a theoretical backdrop, the concepts of "protean" career, (Hall, 2002), "hero's journey", (Osland, 1995) and "career competencies" (De Fillippi & Arthur, 1996) were used as frameworks to assist understanding. The study was longitudinal, and focused on a one-year cohort (2001) of volunteers who provided information on three occasions - before, during, and immediately after their assignment. The study used a mixed- methodology design i.e. was both quantitative and qualitative using both in depth interviews and psychometric testing. The study suggests alternative ways of exploring volunteer expatriation with a specific focus on repositioning the individual at the centre of the study. The study began by focusing and identifying the personalities, (as indicated by the Five Factor Model NEO- PR questionnaire) career values, (as indicated by the Career Orientation Inventory, previous career, attitudes to career and motivation to volunteer (the last two being assessed by a pre-departure structured interview. The experience of VSA assignments was explored by means of a mid-assignment email questionnaire. A second post assignment interview elicited further data on volunteers' experience of VSA, their evaluation of that experience in retrospect, and their plans for further career development. The NEO and COI were re-administered to check changes over time. The study indicated that self direction, challenge, adventure and personal resilience were dominant themes in the attitudes to career, motivations and experiences of the VSA assignment. Openness and agreeableness, significantly greater than population norms were dominant and stable personality traits. In addition, the study reported volunteers' perceived effects of the VSA experience relating to self and career in the forms of increased technical and personal skills, self awareness and challenges to their values. Such outcomes of the study support the use of the "protean "career model (Hall, 1976; Hall, 2002; Briscoe & Hall, 2003) as a way to understand the career transitions made by the volunteers. It also substantiated Osland's (1990; 1995) notion of the metaphor of the hero's journey as an adventure and framework to understand volunteer expatriation and VSA phenomena. In addition, the outcomes supported a model of understanding career competencies as career "capital" used as a framework to understand volunteer motivation and the VSA assignment experience as a career episode.

Climate change impacts hydrology, nutrient cycling, agricultural conservation practices, and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The Chesapeake Bay and its watershed are subject to the largest and most expensive Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) ever developed. It is unclear if the TMDL can be met given climate change and variability (e.g., extreme weather events). The objective of this dissertation is to quantify the impact of climate change and climate on water resources, nutrient cycling and export in agroecosystems, and agricultural conservation practices in the Chesapeake Bay watershed. This is accomplished by developing and employing a suite of modelling tools. GHG emissions from agroecosystems, particularly nitrous oxide (N2O), are an increasing concern. To quantify N2O emissions a routine was developed for the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model. The new routine predicts N2O and di-nitrogen (N2) emissions by coupling the C and N cycles with soil moisture, temperature, and pH in SWAT. The model uses reduction functions to predict total denitrification (N2 + N2O production) and partitions N2 from N2O using a ratio method. The SWAT nitrification routine was modified to predict N2O emissions using reduction functions. The new model was tested using GRACEnet data at University Park, Pennsylvania, and West Lafayette, Indiana. Results showed strong correlations between plot measurements of N2O flux and the model predictions for both test sites and suggest that N2O emissions are particularly sensitive to soil pH and soil N, and moderately sensitive to soil temperature/moisture and total soil C levels. The new GHG model was then used to analyze the impact of climate change and extreme weather conditions on the denitrification rate, N2O emissions, and nutrient cycling/export in the 7.4 km2 WE38 watershed in Pennsylvania. Climate change impacts hydrology and nutrient cycling by changing soil moisture, stoichiometric nutrient ratios, and soil temperature, potentially complicating mitigation measures. To quantify the impact of climate change we forced the new GHG model with downscaled and bias-corrected regional climate model output and derived climate anomalies to assess their impact on hydrology, nitrate (NO3-), phosphorus (P), and sediment export, and on emissions of N2O and N2. Model-average (± standard deviation) results indicate that climate change, through an increase in precipitation, will result in moderate increases in winter/spring flow (2.7±10.6 %) and NO3- export (3.0±7.3 %), substantial increases in dissolved P (DP, 8.8±19.8 %), total P (TP, 4.5±11.7 %), and sediment (17.9±14.2 %) export, and greater N2O (63.3±50.8 %) and N2 (17.6±20.7 %) emissions. Conversely, decreases in summer flow (-12.4±26.7 %) and the export of P (-11.4±27.4 %), TP (-7.9±24.5 %), sediment (-4.1±21.4 %), and NO3- (-12.2±31.4 %) are driven by greater evapotranspiration from increasing summer temperatures. Increases in N2O (20.1±29.3 %) and decreases in N2 (-13.0±14.6 %) are also predicted in the summer and driven by increases in soil moisture and temperature. In an effort to assess the impact of climate change at a regional level, the model was then scaled-up to the entire Susquehanna River basin and was used to evaluate if agricultural best management practices (BMPs) can offset the impact of climate change. Agricultural BMPs are increasingly and widely employed to reduce diffuse nutrient pollution. Climate change can complicate the development, implementation, and efficiency of BMPs by altering hydrology, nutrient cycling, and erosion. We select and evaluate four common BMPs (buffer strips, strip crop, no-till, and tile drainage) to test their response to climate change. We force the calibrated model with six downscaled global climate models (GCMs) for a historic period (1990-2014) and two future scenario periods (2041-2065) and (2075-2099) and quantify the impact of climate change on hydrology, NO3-, total N (TN), DP, TP, and sediment export with and without BMPs. We also tested prioritizing BMP installation on the 30% of agricultural lands that generate the most runoff (e.g., critical source areas-CSAs). Compared against the historical baseline and excluding the impact of BMPs, the ensemble model mean (± standard deviation?) predictions indicate that climate change results in annual increases in flow (4.5±7.3%), surface runoff (3.5±6.1%), sediment export (28.5±18.2%) and TN (9.5±5.1%), but decreases in NO3- (12±12.8%), DP (14±11.5%), and TP (2.5±7.4%) export. When agricultural BMPs are simulated most do not appreciably change the overall water balance; however, tile drainage and strip crop decrease surface runoff generation and the export of sediment, DP, and TP, while buffer strips reduced N export substantially. Installing BMPs on critical source areas (CSAs) results in nearly the same level of performance for most practices and most pollutants. These results suggest that climate change will influence the performance of BMPs and that targeting BMPs to CSAs can provide nearly the same level of water quality impact as more widespread adoption. Finally, recognizing that all of these model applications have considerable uncertainty associated with their predictions, we develop and employ a Bayesian multi-model ensemble to evaluate structural model prediction uncertainty. The reliability of watershed models in a management context depends largely on associated uncertainties. Our Objective is to quantify structural uncertainty for predictions of flow, sediment, TN, and TP predictions using three models: the SWAT-Variable Source Area model (SWAT-VSA), the standard SWAT model (SWAT-ST), and the Chesapeake Bay watershed model (CBP-model). We initialize each of the models using weather, soil, and land use data and analyze outputs of flow, sediment, TN, and TP for the Susquehanna River basin at the Conowingo Dam in Conowingo, Maryland. Using these three models we fit Bayesian Generalized Non - Linear Multilevel Models (BGMM) for flow, sediment, TN, and TP and obtain estimated outputs with 95% confidence intervals. We compare the BGMM results against the individual model results and straight model averaging (SMA) results using a split time period analysis (training period and testing period) to assess the BGMM in a predictive fashion. The BGMM provided better predictions of flow, sediment, TN, and TP compared to individual models and the SMA during the training period. However, during the testing period the BGMM was not always the best predictor; in fact, there was no clear best model during the testing period. Perhaps more importantly, the BGMM provides estimates of prediction uncertainty, which can enhance decision making and improve watershed management by providing a risk-based assessment of outcomes. / Ph. D. / Climate change impacts hydrology, nutrient cycling, agricultural conservation practices, and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The Chesapeake Bay and its watershed are subject to the largest and most expensive Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) ever developed. It is unclear if the TMDL can be met given climate change and variability. The objective of this dissertation is to quantify the impact of climate change and climate on water resources, nutrient cycling and export in agroecosystems, and agricultural conservation practices in the Chesapeake Bay watershed. This is accomplished by developing and employing different modeling tools. First, GHG emissions model was developed to quantify nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions from agroecosystems, which are an increasing concern. The new model was then tested using observed N₂O emissions data at University Park, Pennsylvania, and West Lafayette, Indiana. Results showed strong correlations between plot measurements of N₂O flux and the model predictions for both test sites. Second, the new GHG model was then used to analyze the impact of climate change and extreme weather conditions on the N₂O emissions, and nutrient cycling/export in small and regional watershed scale. To quantify the impact of climate change we forced the new GHG model with downscaled and bias-corrected regional climate model date to assess their impact on hydrology, nitrate (NO₃-), phosphorus (P), and sediment export, and on emissions of N₂O and N₂. Finally, recognizing that all of these model applications have considerable uncertainty associated with their predictions, we developed and employed a Bayesian multi-model ensemble to evaluate structural model prediction uncertainty.

The aim of this study is to investigate and analyse the military involvement of the USA in the security of sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) during the era of the Clinton administration (1993-2001). The study is based on the assumption that the US did not have that much interest in the security of SSA during the Clinton era and that it did not want to become militarily involved in SSA. Its position as the only remaining superpower in the post-Cold War era, however placed a responsibility on the US to be militarily involved in the creation of a more secure SSA. The study relies on two theoretical constructs. On the one hand the changing nature of security in the post-Cold War world in general, but specifically in SSA, serves as a theoretical starting point. This is, on the other hand, supported by a theoretical focus on the nature of military involvement globally, but also specifically in SSA in the era after the Cold War. The latter is to a large extent related to the changing nature of military force and the use thereof in the post-Cold War era. The military involvement of the US in the management of the security of SSA during the Clinton era is analysed against the background of the US interests, policy, and strategy – specifically its security strategy – in SSA. The reality of the absence of concrete US interests in SSA is highlighted. This lack of interest led to a situation whereby SSA could not be a priority in US foreign policy. The US policy objectives in SSA were nevertheless aimed at the promotion of democracy, the improvement of the security situation and the support of economic progress. The reluctance of the US to deploy military forces in SSA underpins its security strategy and military involvement in SSA. The security strategy of the US was in essence preventive in nature since it aimed at preventing the manifestation of threats from SSA against the US by promoting the stability of SSA. However, the US was still militarily involved in SSA in a variety of ways, from the provision of military training and the conduct of military exercises to military operations. Military involvement centred around the empowerment of armed forces in SSA. It was argued that the capacity of the armed forces of SSA should be developed to support democratic governance and economic progress. The capacity building programmes of the US armed forces in SSA concentrated on defence reform, military professionalism, the creation of indigenous conflict resolution and peace support capabilities, the provision of equipment, and the improvement of health and environmental conditions. / Dissertation (MA (Security Studies))--University of Pretoria, 2005. / Political Sciences / unrestricted

Pour faire face à l'augmentation des émissions de CO2 dans l'atmosphère à cause de la production électrique dans des centrales à charbon, le captage en post-combustion au moyen d'un procédé VSA est une solution envisageable. Les adsorbants utilisés dans notre étude sont la TEPA imprégnée sur SiO2, les oxydes de terre rare et le MOF (Metal Organic Frameworks) SIM-1. Pour chaque adsorbant, une étude du perçage puis de la régénération a été effectuée à partir d'une alimentation composée de 15%vol de CO2 et de N2. De ces essais, les conditions opératoires des cycles VSA ont été établies (durées des phases courtes, pas de circulation de purge). En cycle, les performances sont comparées à celle du procédé d'absorption avec la monoéthénolamine. La pureté du désorbat varie de 89,2%vol à 97,2%vol selon les adsorbants et les conditions opératoires. Elle est inférieure à celle du procédé d'absorption (99%vol) mais est correcte pour le transport et le stockage. Le taux de captage évolue de 87,2% à 94,9% (absorption : 98%). La consommation énergétique est inférieure à celle du procédé avec la MEA (de 1,53 à 3,45 MJ.kgCO2 1 pour notre procédé et 3,7 MJ.kgCO2¬1 pour l'absorption) Enfin la productivité est du même ordre de grandeur que celle d'autres procédés VSA de la littérature. Avec le modèle numérique, une étude locale de l'adsorbeur a été menée. Puis grâce à une étude paramétrique, des conditions optimales en cycle ont été déterminées. Les résultats obtenus ont permis de mettre en évidence des performances comparables avec les autres procédés VSA de la littérature. De plus, notre procédé est beaucoup moins énergivore que le procédé d'absorption mais la pureté du désorbat et le taux de captage en CO2 restent inférieurs.